m 


mi] 


1 

J                                TT!T7T<TTTT 

1 

imml 


®l|f  S.  B.  UtU  ffitbrarg 


Nnrtlj  (CarDlina  Statf  QlDUpflf 

5FZ85 
G3 
1920 


INDICATED  BELOW  A^  FINE  AS 

{SiU'  i?  ?Sf  cYrculation 

DESK. 


APit^:^ 


The  first  farmer  was  the  first  man,  and  all  historic 
nobility  rests  on  possession  and  use  of  land." 

— Emerson. 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM   MANUALS 

EDITED     BY 

KARY  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D.  (Cornell) 

PROFESSOR   OF  AGRICULTURE,   SCHOOL   OF  COUNTRY  LIFE, 
GEORGE   PEABODY   COLLEGE  FOR  TEACHERS.   NASHVILLE,   TENNESSEE 


PRODUCTIVE 
HORSE   HUSBANDRY 

By  carl  W.  gay,  D.V.M.,  B.S.A. 

PROFESSOR  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY,  SCHOOL  OF  VETERINARY  MEDICINE,  UNIVERSITY  OF 

PENNSYLVANIA;    DIRECTOR   OF   HORSE    BREEDING,   STATE   LIVESTOCK 

SANITARY  BOARD,  COMMONWEALTH  OF  PENNSYLVANIA. 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM  MANUALS 

Edited  by 
K.  C.  DAVIS.  Ph.D. 

KNAPP  SCHOOL  OF  COUNTRY  LIFE.  NASHVILLE,  TENN. 

PRODUCTIVE  SWINE  HUSBANDRY     1915 
By  GEORGE  E.  DAY,  B.S.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY     1919 
By  harry  R.  lewis,  B.S. 

PRODUCTIVE  HORSE  HUSBANDRY     1920 
By  carl  W.  gay,  D.V.AI.,  B.S.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  ORCHARDING     1917 
By  FRED  C.  SEARS,  M.S. 

PRODUCTIVE  VEGETABLE  GROWING     1918 
By  JOHN  W.  LLOYD,  M.S.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  FEEDINGof  FARM  ANIMALS     1916 
By  F.  W.  WOLL,  Ph.D. 

COMMON  DISEASES  OF  FARM   ANIMALS     1919 
By  R.  a.  CRAIG,  D.V.M. 

PRODUCTIVE  FARM  CROPS      1918 
By  E.  G.  MONTGOMERY,  M.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  BEE  KEEPING      1918 
By  FRANK  C.  PELLETT 

PRODUCTIVE  DAIRYING      1919 
By  R.  M.  WASHBURN,  M.S.A. 

INJURIOUS  INSECTS  AND  USEFUL  BIRDS     1918 
By  F.  L.  WASHBURN,  M.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY     1918 
By  WALTER  C.  COFFEY,  M.S. 

SOIL  PHYSICS  AND  MANAGEMENT     1919 
By  J.  G.  MOSIER,  B.S.,  A.  F.  GUSTAFSON,  M.S. 

APPLIED  ECONOMIC  BOTANY    1919 
By  MELVILLE  T.  COOK,  Ph.D. 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  AND  NOTEBOOK 

ON  THE  FOLLOWING  SUBJECTS 

SOILS,  By  J.  F.  EASTMAN  and  K.  C.  DAVIS     i9is 

POULTRY,  By  H.  R.  LEWIS     I9i8 

DAIRYING,  By  E.  L.  ANTHONY     i9i7 

FEEDING,  By  F.  W.  WOLL     i9i7 

FARM  CROPS,  By  F.  W.  LATHROP 


LiPPiNCOTT's  Farm  Manuals 

EDITED  BY  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D.  (Cornell). 


PRODUCTIVE 
HORSE  HUSBANDRY 


BY 

CARL  W.  GAY,  D.V.M.,  B.S.A. 

PROFESSOR   OF   ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY,   CHAIRMAN   OF   THE  ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY 

SECTION   OF   THE  DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE,   UNIVERSITY 

OF  MINNESOTA 


175  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 

THIRD  EDITION,  REVISED 


"  If  vain  our  toil,      -"  \  _      f 
We  ought  to  blame  the  culture,  not  tite  soil."'. 

Pope  —Essay  on  Man- 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIOKT,    1914 
OY   J.    B.   LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,    IQlt) 
BY  J.    B.   LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,    1920 
B.    LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 


Electrotyped  and  printed  by 
J.  B.  LippincoU  Company,  Philadelphia,  U.S.  A. 


PREFACE 

It  has  been  the  author's  pui^ose  to  emphasize  industry  as 
applied  to  horses.  If  the  production,  marketing,  and  use  of 
horses  were  regarded  as  an  industry  and  conducted  more  gen- 
erally along  business  lines,  with  a  definite  purpose  in  view,  more 
uniform  results  could  be  obtained  and  with  greater  profit  to 
those  engaged. 

It  is  quite  generally  conceded  that  the  investigations  of  the 
experiment  stations,  as  well  as  the  instruction  in  the  schools  and 
colleges,  have  been  more  exhaustive  in  their  application  to  cattle, 
hogs,  sheep,  and  poultry  than  to  horses.  This  is  unrepresenta- 
tive of  the  importance  of  the  horse  industry  and  inadequate  to 
its  needs.  The  aimless,  hit  or  miss,  haphazard  system  prevails 
in  the  production  of  horses  more  than  in  any  other  class  of  live 
stock ;  the  scrub  stallion  is  less  in  disrepute  than  the  scrub  bull, 
and  most  producers  of  market  cattle,  hogs,  or  sheep  devote  them- 
selves more  intelligently  to  their  enterprise  than  do  the  breeders 
of  horses. 

Commonly  the  original  producer  receives  a  lower  percentage 
of  the  price  which  a  horse  ultimately  brings  than  is  the  case  with 
most  market  products.  Indifference  to  market  demands  and  lack 
of  information  concerning  the  best  means  of  meeting  the  require- 
ments are  largely  responsible  for  the  advantage  of  the  middle- 
man. In  fact,  they  constitute  the  principal  asset  of  a  certain 
class  of  dealers  who  derive  their  profits  in  direct  proportion  to 
the  ignorance  of  those  from  whom  they  buy  and  to  whom  they 
sell. 

J^otwithstanding  the  keen  competition  between  the  horse  and 
the  motor  in  some  fields,  the  horse  business  in  general  is  on  a 
sound  basis  and  bids  fair  to  continue  so,  as  far  as  can  be  fore- 
seen. But  to  successfully  compete  requires  most  careful  atten- 
tion to  detail.  Economic  efficiency  is  the  standard  by  which  com- 
parisons are  made.  Science  and  system  must  govern  in  the 
profitable  production  of  market  horses  and  their  subsequent 
service. 


^    ^'^. 


17769 


Vi  PREFACE 

Economy  and  efficiency  have,  therefore,  ruled  in  tJie  prep- 
aration of  this  suhject-matter.  The  scope  of  the  work  outlined 
is  too  broad  to  admit  of  an  extended  discussion  of  all  points 
referred  to.  Duplication  of  other  texts  has  been  avoided,  as  far 
as  possible,  while  those  phases  of  the  subject  that  have  received 
.the  least  mention  prior  to  this  time  have  been  most  fullv 
developed. 

This  book  is  intended  to  present  to  students  of  live  stock 
husbandry'  the  same  systematic  and  complete  study  of  the  horse 
that  has  been  accorded  tlie  other  classes  of  live  stock.  Works 
on  the  horse  are  legion,  and  many  of  them  excellent,  but  the 
majority  of  writers  view  the  proposition  from  an  angle  which 
does  not  comprehend  the  student's  requirements  so  fully  as  is 
attempted  here. 

The  author  duly  acknowledges  much  valuable  information 
gleaned  from  the  current  literature  on  the  subject,  while  he  claims 
no  authority  but  assumes  entire  responsibility  for  the  accuracy 
of  much  that  is  said.  He  deeply  appreciates  the  counsel  and 
assistance  of  a  wide  acquaintance  of  practical  horsemen  in 
acquiring  the  fund  of  horse  lore  from  which  the  material,  here- 
with presented,  is  dra^\Ti. 

Sectionalism  and  joartiality  to  special  classes  or  breeds  have 
been  avoided.  Emphasis  has  been  laid  upon  the  practical  side 
of  horse  husbandry.  Students  as  well  as  horse  breeders  have 
been  kept  in  mind  while  preparing  this  book.  It  is  hoped  that 
short-course  students  and  college  students  will  alike  be  able  to 
use  the  text  to  advantage.  The  grouping  of  the  chapters  into 
four  parts  should  aid  in  rapid  reference  and  student  work. 

Carl  W.  Gay. 

University  of  Penna., 
Nov.,  1913. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I.— STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  The  Horse — A  Machine 3 

II.  Conformation — The  Structure 10 

III.  Way  of  Going — The  Function 17 

PART  II.— TYPES  AND  BREEDS. 

IV.  The  Types  of  Horses 35 

V.  The  Classes  of  Horses 45 

VI.  The  Breeds  of  Horses 70 

VII.  Draft  Breeds 84 

VIII.  The  Heavy  Harness  Breeds 101 

IX.  American  Breeds 112 

X.  Pony  Breeds 133 

XI.  Judging  Horses 139 

PART  III.— THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING. 
^11.  'piE  Breeding  of  Horses 179 

X  PART  IV.— THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE. 

f^JAHI.  Relation  Between  Horse  and  Master 219 

^  ^5>The  Feeding  of  Horses ^31 

'        XV.  Stables 247 

XVr*  Equitation 269 

XVII.  Vehicle,  Harness,  and  Saddle 286 

XVIII.  Markets  and  Shows 296 

XIX.  Transportation 304 

XX.  The  Mule 309 

XXI.  The  Motor  as  a  Factor 314 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


riQ.  PAGE 

Productive  Horse  Husbandry Frontispiece 

1.  Hind  Legs,  Propeller;  Forelegs,  Supportive  to  the  Extent  of  Lifting 

the  Forehand.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 3 

2.  Skeleton  of  the  Horse,  Showing  the  Vertebral  Arch  and  the  Bone 

Columns.     (Adams'  Horseshoeing) 4 

3.  Each  and  Every  Phase  of  the  Stride  is  Demonstrated 5 

4.  Situation  of  the  Centre  of  Gravity  in  the  Horse.     (Exterior  of  the 

Horse) , 6 

5.  Diagram  Showing  Contact  of  Feet  in  Various  Gaits 7 

6.  During  the  Greatest  Effort  the  Base  of  Support  is  Rectangular,  the 

Horse  Being  Practically  on  All  Fours.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) .  .  8 

7.  Regions  of  the  Horse  Seen  in  Profile.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 11 

8.  Normal  Eye.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 12 

9.  Plantar  Surface  of  Right  Fore-Hoof.     (Adams'  Horseshoeing) 13 

10.  The  Erect  Standing  Position  of  the  Foreleg,  Viewed  from  in  Front, 

as  Determined  by  the  Plumb-hne.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 14 

11.  The  Correct  Standing  Position  of  the  Foreleg,  Viewed  from  the  Side. 

(Schweiter) 14 

12.  The  Correct  Standing  Position  of  the  Hind  Leg,  Viewed  from  the 

Rear.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 15 

13.  The  Correct  Standing  Position  of  the  Hind  Leg,  Viewed  from  the 

Side.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 15 

14.  The  Fast  Trot,  Characterized  as  a  Diagonal  Gait  of  Extreme  Exten- 

sion and  Rapidity  of  Stride 18 

15.  The  High  Stepping  Trot,  Showing  Extreme  Flexion  of  Knees  and 

Hocks.     (Champion  Hackney  Pony  Berkley  Bantam) 19 

16.  The  Pace,  a  Lateral  Gait  of  Extreme  Extension  and  Rapidity  of 

Stride 20 

17.  The  Different  Phases  and  Contacts  in  the  Gallops.    (Exterior  of  the 

Horse) 21 

18.  The  Different  Phases  and  Contacts  in  the  Jump.     (Exterior  of  the 

Horse) 22 

19.  Position  of  Direction  of  Leg  to  Course  Taken  by  Foot  in  the  Stride. 

(Adams'  Horseshoeing) 24 

20.  Knee-sprung  or  Over  on  the  Knees.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 25 

21.  Calf-kneed.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 25 

22.  Too  Straight  Pastern.     (Adams'  Horseshoeing)  .-. 25 

23.  Base  Narrow,  Toe  Wide,  Nigger-heeled,  or  Splay-footed.    (Exterior 

of  the  Horse) 26 

ix 


X  ILLUSTRATIONS 

24.  Toe  Narrow  or  Pigeon-toed.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 26 

25.  Knock-kneed,     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 26 

26.  Bow-kneed.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 27 

27.  Too  Close  at  Ground.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 27 

28.  Too  Wide  at  Ground.     (Ex-terior  of  the  Horse) 27 

29.  Bent,  Sabre,  or  Sickle  Hock.     (Adams'  Horseshoeing) 28 

30.  Cow-hocked.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 28 

31.  Bandy-legged  or  Wide  at  the  Hocks.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 28 

32.  The  Draft  Type,  Showing  the  Weight,  the  Low,  Wide,  Compact, 

Massive  Form,  the  Bone  and  the  Muscling  which  Characterize  the 
Horse  of  Power.  (Percheron  Gelding,  Champion  International 
Live  Stock  Exposition) 36 

33.  The  Way  a  Draft  Horse  Should  be  Able  to  Move.     (Camot,  Im- 

ported Percheron  Stallion,  Champion  International  Live  Stock 
Exposition,  Owned  by  W.  S.  Corsa,  Whitehall,  111.  Courtesy  of 
the  Owner) 38 

34.  The  Speed  Type,  Representing  the  Long,  Rangy,  Angular,  Narrow 

but  Deep  Form  Correlated  with  Length  and  Rapidity  of  Stride. 
(Champion  Trotting  Mare  Lou  Dillon,  1.583^) 39 

35.  The  Show  Type,   Representing  the  Close  and  Full  Made  Form. 

(Champion  Hackney  Show  Mare,  Lady  Seaton) 41 

36.  A  Weight  Carrier,   Illustrating  the  Bone  Muscular  Development 

which,  with  a  Short  Back  and  Legs,  Render  a  Horse  "up  to"  Two 
Hundred  Pounds  or  More.  (Prize  Winning  Heavy  Weight  Hunter, 
SoUtaire) 42 

37.  The  Saddle  Type,  Showing  the  Short  Top  and  Long  Under  Line, 

Sloping  Shoulders,  the  High,  Well-finished  Withers,  and  the 
Long,  Fine,  Supple  Neck  Essential  to  the  Saddle  Horse.  (Cham- 
pion Saddle  Mare,  Sonia) 43 

38.  A  Trey  or  Three-way  Hitch  of  Drafters  to  Truck,  Showing  the 

Scale,  Form,  and  Conformation  of  Horses  of  this  Class,  also  the 
Manner  of  Hitching.  (Prize  W^inning  Percheron  Geldings  Owned 
by  J.  Crouch  and  Sons,  Lafayette,  Ind.    Courtesy  of  the  owners)  .     50 

39.  A  Draft  Pair  of  Unusual  Quality  and  Attractive  Color 51 

40.  A  Six-horse  Draft  Team  to  Packer's  Van,  Showing  the  Relative 

Balance  between  the  Lead,  Swing,  and  Wheel-pair,  also  Complete 
Appointments.     (Prize  Winning  Clydesdale  Geldings) 51 

41.  A  Pair  of  Chunks  to  Truck,  Showing  the  Extremely  Drafty  Form, 

Bone,  and  Ruggedness  Typical  to  this  Class.  (Percheron  Geldings 
Owned  by  H.  S.  Beaston,  Philadelphia,   Pa.      Courtesy  of  the 

Owner)    52 

42.  An  Expresser  for  Light  Delivery  Service,  Showing  the  Combination 
of  Draft  Horse  Size  and  Substance  with  Coach  Horse  Form  and 
Finish.  (Prize  Winning  Light  Delivery  Gelding,  Owned  by 
Strawbridge  and  Clothier,  Philadelphia.    Courtesy  of  the  Owners)     53 


ILLUSTRATIONS  3^ 

43.  A  Class  of  Coach  Horses  to  Brougham  and  Victorias.     (Harness 

Class,  Philadelphia  Horse  Show) 54 

44.  A  Park  Mare  to  Sayler  Wagon.     (Champion  Hackney  Show  Mare, 

The  Whip) 55 

45.  A  Runabout  Horse,  with  a  Fair  Degree  of  Both  Pace  and  Action. 

(Champion  Trottingbred  Harness  Horse,  Newsboy) 55 

46.  A  Cob  to  Runabout,  a  Big,  Little  Horse  of  Extremely  Compact  and 

Rotund  Form.    (Champion  Small  Harness  Horse,  Young  Moun- 
taineer)       56 

47.  The  Bent  Hock-joint.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 57 

48.  A  Gentleman's  Road  Mare.     (Champion  Road  Mare,  Alhe  Nun).. .     58 

49.  A  Trotter  to  Sulky.     (Champion  Trotting  Mare,  Sweet  Marie,  2.02, 

McDonald  up) 58 

50.  The  Straight  Hock- joint.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 59 

51.  A  Steeple  Chaser,  Showing  the  Speed   and  Saddle  Form  of  the 

Running    Race    Horse.        (Merryman,    Virginia    bred    hunter. 
Courtesy  of  the  National  Stockman  and  Farmer,  Pittsburg,  Pa.)     60 

52.  A  Gaited  Saddle   Stallion.      (Kentucky  Choice,  Owned    by  Mrs. 

Richard  Tasker  Lowndes,  Danville,  Ky.  Courtesy  of  the  Owner. 
Matt  Cohen  up) 61 

53.  A  Walk-trot-canter  Horse.      (Champion  Walk-trot-canter  Saddle 

Horse,  Poetry  of  Motion) 62 

54.  A  Class  of  English  Saddle  Horses.     (Saddle  Class,  International 

Horse  Show,  Olympia,  London.    Courtesy  of  the  National  Stock- 
man and  Farmer,  Pittsburg,  Pa.) 63 

55.  A  Light-weight  Hunter.     (Prize  Winning  Hunter  Mare,  Sunday 

Morning) 63 

56.  Heatherbloom,  the  World'sRecord  High  Jumper.       (Record,  8  feet 

3}/2  inches.    Dick  Donnelly  up) 64 

57.  A  Combination  Horse.     (Prize  Winning  Saddle  Horse,  Confidence, 

OwTied  by  Dr.  Oscar  Seely,  Philadelphia) 65 

58.  The  Fine  Harness  Horse  of  the  South.   (Kentucky  Choice  in  Harness)     66 

59.  A  Harness  Pony  under  46  Inches  in  Height.     (Prize  Winning  Shet- 

land   Pony,   Lysander,  Owned    by  Chas.  E.  Bunn,   Peoria,   111. 
Courtesy  of  the  Owner) 67 

60.  A  Twelve-hand  Ride  and  Drive  Pony  of  Exceptional  Merit.     (Prize 

Winning  Harness  and  Saddle  Hackney  Pony  Mare,  Helen  Miller, 
Owned  by  Willisbrook  Farm) 67 

61.  A  Pair  of  Twelve-hand  Ponies  Properly  Turned  Out.     (Prize  Win- 

ning Pair  of  Welsh  Ponies,  Owned  by  Geo.  A.  Heyl,  Washington,  111.)     68 

62.  A  Polo  Mount,  Fast,  Game,  Handy,  Intelligent,  and  up  to  Weight. 

(Prize  Winning  Polo  Mount,  Redman) 68 

63.  Arabian  Stallion,  Showing  the  General  Refinement  Characteristic  of 

this  Breed.    (Naaman,  Owned  by  Herman  Hoopes,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.    Courtesy  of  the  Owner) 74 


Xii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

64.  A  Thoroughbred  StaUion,  the  Sire  of  Race  Horses,     (Rocksand, 

Recently  Sold  by  August  Belmont  to  a  Foreign  Syndicate  for 
$150,000) 78 

65.  A  Thoroughbred  Stallion  Suitable  to  Get  Saddle  Horses  and  Hunters. 

(Chilton) 80 

66.  A  French  Post  Coach  Used  Early  in  the  Nineteenth  Centurj'.     (A 

Manual  of  Coacliing) 86 

67.  A  Diligence  Still  in  Use  in  Switzerland.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching)..     87 

68.  An  Old-fashioned  Percheron.     (StaUion,  Sultan,  Imported  by  Wm. 

T.  Walters,  Baltimore,  Md.,  1882) 88 

69.  A  Percheron  Stallion.      (Imported  Imprecation;  Champion  Inter- 

national Live  Stock  Exposition,  Owned  by  J.  Crouch  and  Sons, 
Lafayette,  Ind.     Courtesy  of  the  OwTiers) 89 

70.  A  Belgian  Stallion  of  the  Most  Acceptable  Stamp.     (Prize  Winning 

Imported,  Xa\'ier,  OwTied  by  J.  Crouch  and  Sons,  •  Lafayette, 
Ind.     Courtesy  of  the  Owners) 92 

71.  A  Clydesdale  Stallion  of  Most  Impressive  Character.     (Flisk  Prince, 

Imported,  Champion  International  Live  Stock  Exposition,  Owned 
by  Conyngham  Brothers,  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa.    Courtesy  of  Owners)     95 

72.  A   Shire  Stallion  of  Most  Approved  Type.      (Lockinge  Hengist, 

Imported,  Champion  International  Live  Stock  Exposition, 
Owned  by  Truman's  Pioneer  Stud  Farm,  Bushnell,  111.  Courtesy 
of  the  Owners) 97 

73.  A  Suffolk  StaUion  of  the  Punch  Form.      (Rcndlesham  Sunshine, 

Imported  Prize  Winner,  Owned  by  Conyngham  Brothers,  Wilkes- 
Barre,  Pa.    Courtesy  of  the  Owners) 99 

74.  A   Hackney  Stallion.      (Oxford  Champion,  National   Horse  Show, 

Madison  Square  Garden,  New  York  City.  The  Only  American 
Bred  Horse  that  ever  Won  this  Honor.  Owned  by  Wm.  White, 
Frazer,  Pa.     Courtesy  of  the  OwTier) 103 

75.  A  French  Coach  Stallion  of  the  More  Rcfmed  Sort.     (Decorateur, 

Imported,  Champion  International  Live  Stock  Exposition,  OwTied 

by  M  cLauglilin  Brothers,  Columbus,  Ohio.  Courtesy  of  the  Owners)   104 

76.  A   French   Coach  Sire  which   has   Produced  High-Class   Harness 

Horses  with  Remarkable  Regularity.  (Troarn,  Prize  Winner, 
Owned  by  Geo.  D.  King,  Springboro,  Pa.     Courtesy  of  OwTier) .  .    105 

77.  A  German  Coach  StaUion 107 

78.  The  Lead  Pair  in  this  Road  Four  are  Pure-bred  OrlofTs.     (0%vTied 

and  Shown  by  Judge  W.  H.  Moore) 109 

79.  Cannon,  at  the  Head  of  the  Government  Stud  of  American  Horses. 

(Courtesy  of  Geo.  M.  Rommel) 109 

80.  Pair  of  Trotting-bred  Heavy  Harness  Horses  to  George  IV  Phaeton. 

(Lord  Brilliant  and  Lord  Golden,  Many  Times  Champions) 110 

81.  A  Standardbred  Stallion,  a  Leading  Sire  of  the  Breed.     (Bingen, 

Recently  Deceased) 113 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

82.  Hambletonian  10,  at  23  Years  of  Age 115 

83.  Monument  over  Grave  of  Hambletonian   10,   at  Chester,   N.  Y. 

(Courtesy  of  Prof.  Henry  W.  Vaughn,  Ohio  State  University) 116 

84.  Green  Mountain  Maid  in  1873 118 

85.  Inscription  on  Monument  of  Green  Mountain  Maid  at  Stony  Ford. 

(Courtesy  of  Prof.  Henry  W.  Vaughn,  Ohio  State  University)..  .  .    118 

86.  An  "Ideal  Representative "  of  the  Standardbred.    (Moquette,  2.10, 

Owned  by  W.  H.  Davis,  Washington,  Pa.  Courtesy  of  the  Owner)  119 

87.  A    16-hand,   1200-pound   Standard  Performer.      (Stalhon  Sisalson, 

Owned  by  Henry  Palmer,  Avondale,  Pa.    Courtesy  of  the  Owner)  120 

88.  Original  Photo  of  Ethan  Allen,  made  in  1859 124 

89.  A  Morgan  StaUion.     (Bobbie  3-) 125 

90.  General  Gates,  at  the  Head  of  the  Government  Morgan  Stud 126 

91.  An  American  Saddle  Stalhon.     (Bourbon  King  One  of  the  Leading 

Sires  of  Kentucky) 131 

92.  The  Old  Comitry  Idea  of  Shetland  Type  is  a  Miniature  Draft  Horse. 

(Eirik  and  Silverton  of  Tamsey,   Champion  Shetland  Stallions 
and  the  Highland  Royal  Shows) 134 

93.  A  Shetland  Stallion,  American  bred.     (Grandee,  0^vned  by  Chas. 

E.  Bunn,  Peoria,  111.    Courtesy  of  the  Owner) 134 

94.  A  Welsh  Pony  Stallion,  Showing  the  Size  and  Form  Characteristic 

of  the  Breed.    (Llwyn  King,  Owned  by  Geo.  A.  Heyl,  Washington, 
111.    Courtesy  of  the  O^mer) 136 

95.  A  Hackney  Pony  Stallion.   (Horace,  Jr.,  Imported  Champion,  Owned 

by  Wilhsbrook  Farm,  Malvern,  Pa.    Courtesy  of  the  Owners)  .  .  .    137 

96.  Dentition  of  the  Horse,  as  a  ^^Tiole.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 152 

97.  Longitudinal  and  Median  Section  of  a  Permanent  Inferior  Pincer. 

(Exterior  of  the  Horse) 153 

98.  Birth:  None  of  the  Incisor  Teeth  has  Penetrated  the  Gums.     (Ex- 

terior of  the  Horse) 154 

99.  One  Year:  Viewed  in  Front,  All  the  Milk  Incisors  are  Visible. 

(Exterior  of  the  Horse) 155 

100.  Two  Years :  Jaws  Belonging  to  a  Colt  of  a  Lymphatic  Race,  Having 

been  Fed  Almost  Entirely  on  Forage.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) ...    156 

101.  Three  Years  Past:  Viewed  in  Front,  the  Four  Permanent  Pincers 

are  Seen.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) ' 157 

102.  Rising  Four  Years:  Viewed  in  Front,  there  are  Seen  in  Each  Jaw, 

Four  Permanent  Incisors.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 158 

103.  Four  Years:  Viewed  in  Front,  All  the  Permanent  Superior  Teeth 

are  in  Contact  with  the  Inferior.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 159 

104.  Four  Years  Past:  Viewed  in  Front,  the  Superior  Permanent  Inter- 

mediates are  in  Contact  wdth  the  Inferior  Intermediates,  and  on 
the  Same  Level  as  the  Pincers.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 160 

105.  Rising  Five  Years:  The  Four  Milk  Corners  have  Fallen  Out  and  are 

ReplacedbyThose  of  the  Second  Dentition.  (Exterior  of  the  Horse)  161 


Xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

106.  Five  Years:  The  Mouth  is  Entirely  Made.    (Exterior  of  the  Horse)  162 

107.  Six  Years:  Viewed  in  Front,  the  Jaws  Present  Almost  the  Same  Char- 

acters as  at  Five  Years.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 163 

108.  Seven  Years:  Viewed  in  Front,  the  Teeth  Appear  Whiter.    (Exterior 

of  the  Horse) 164 

109.  Eight  Years:  The  Direction  of  the  Incisors  Notably  Changed.    (Ex- 

terior of  the  Horse) 165 

110.  Nine  Years:  Nothing  Special  is  to  be  Seen  upon  the  Jaws  in  Front 

or  in  Profile.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 166 

111.  Ten  Years:  When  Viewed  from  Front,  the  Jaws  Become  Prominent. 

(Exterior  of  the  Horse) 167 

112.  Eleven  Years:  In  Order  to  See  the  Teeth  in  Front,  it  is  Necessary 

to  Raise  the  Horse's  Head.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 168 

113.  Twelve  Years:  The  Incidence  of  the  Jaws  is  More  Oblique  Than 

at  the  Preceding  Age.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 169 

114.  Fifteen  Years:  Viewed  in  Front,  the  Inferior  Teeth  Appear  Shorter 

than  the  Superior.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 170 

115.  Twenty-one  Years:  The  Teeth  have  Become  so  Horizontal  that, 

when  Viewed  in  Front,  it  is  Difficult  to  See  their  Anterior  Face, 
Unless  the  Head  of  the  Horse  be  Raised.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse)  171 

116.  Thirty  Years:  The  Characters  of  this  Period  are  of  Extreme  Old 

Age.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 172 

117.  This  Horse  has  a  Record  of  Twenty-three  Years  in  the  Delivery 

Service  of  a  Large  City  Department  Store.  (Blue  Roan  Horse, 
Owned  by  Gimbel  Brothers,  Philadelphia.  Courtesy  of  the 
Owners) 173 

118.  This  Horse  has  Served  Eighteen  Years  in  the  City  as  an  Ambulance 

Horse : 174 

119.  This  Horse  has  been  Rendered  Unserviceable  by  the  Same  Work 

in  One  Year 174 

120.  A  Pedigree  Registry  Certificate.     (Courtesy  of  Gurney  C.  Gue,  Sec- 

retary, American  Hackney  Horse  Society) 186 

120a.  Reverse  Side  of  Registry  Certificate 187 

121.  A  Breeding  Stud.     (Irvington  Stud  Farm,  Owned  by  W.  D.  Henry, 

Sewickley,  Pa.     Courtesy  of  the  Owner) 193 

122a  and  122b.    A  Successful  Sire  of  the  Right  Type.  (Carnot,  Courtesy 

of  W.  S.  Corsa,  Whitehall,  111.) 195 

123.  A    Producer — Sweet,    Refined,     and    Feminine.       (Thoroughbred 

Brood  Mare,  luka.    Courtesy  of  Jas.  A.  McCloskey) 199 

124.  A  Brood  Mare  of  Proven  Worth.     (A  Clydesdale,  Pride  of  Drum- 

landrig,  Owned  by  Conyngham  Brothers,  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa. 
Courtesy  of  the  Owners) 200 

125.  The  Line  of  Draft.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 224 

126.  The  Angle  Formed  by  the  Traces  with  the  Hames  Should  be  as 

Near  a  Right  Angle  as  Possible.    (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 226 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 

127.  The  Scapulohumeral  and  Elbow-joint.    (A  Manual  of  Coaching) .  . .   226 

128.  The  Breast  or  Dutch  Collar  in  Proper  Position.     (A  Manual  of 

Coaching) 226 

129.  The  Model  Work  Horse  Stable,  Showing  the  Main  Alley-way  and 

General  Interior  Arrangement.    (Courtesy  of  J.  and  P.  Baltz  Brew- 
ing Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa) 256 

130.  A  Model  Work  Horse  Stable.     (Courtesy  of  J.  and  P.  Baltz  Brew- 

ing Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa.) 257 

131.  A  Model  Work  Horse  Stable.    (Courtesy  of  J.  and  P.  Baltz  Brewing 

Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa.) 257 

132.  Plan  and,  Specifications  for  a  Small  Work  Horse  Stable  with  Open 

Front  Stalls.     (Courtesy  of  The  School  of  Veterinary  Medicine  of 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania) 258 

133.  Floor  Plan  and  Specifications  for  a  Convenient,  Comfortable,  and 

Sanitary  City  Stable.     (Courtesy  of  The  School  of  Veterinary 
Medicine  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania) 258 

134.  A  Vacuum  Grooming  Machine  in  Operation.     (Courtesy  of  the  J. 

and  P.  Baltz  Brewing  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa.) 260 

135.  An  Untrimmed  Hoof  with  an  Excess  of  Horn  at  the  Toe,  which 

Breaks  the  Foot  Axis  Backward.     (Adams'  Horseshoeing) 263 

136.  An  Untrimmed  Hoof  with  an  Excess  of  Horn  at  the  Heels,  which 

Breaks  the  Foot  Axis  Forward.     (Adams'  Horseshoeing) 263 

137.  Hoof  Dressed  and  Foot  Axis  Straightened.    (Adams'  Horseshoeing) .   263 

138.  Tongue  Held  Back  to  Show  the  Bars  of  the  Mouth  upon  which 

the  Bit  Bears.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 272 

139.  The  Jointed  Snaffle  Bit.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 273 

140.  The  Four-ring  Snafile  Bit.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 273 

141.  Port  of  Curb  Bit.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 274 

142.  The  Liverpool  Bit.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 274 

143.  The  Elbow  Bit.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 275 

144.  The  Buxton  Bit.    (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 275 

145.  The  Pelham  Bit.     (Exterior  of  the  Horse) 275 

146.  The  Side  Check  or  Bearing  Rein  with  Bridoon  Bit.     (A  Manual  of 

Coaching) 276 

147.  The  Pulley  Bridoon  Bearing  Rein.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 277 

148.  Adjustment  of  the  Coupling  Reins.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 278 

149.  Reins  Held  in  Left  Hand 281 

150.  The  Take-back • 282 

151.  The  Two-hand  Grip 283 

152.  Riding  Reins  in  One-hand  Grip 284 

153.  Riding,  Two-hand  Grip 284 

154.  The  Evolution  of  the  Wheel.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 287 

155.  The  Cylindrical  Axle  Arm.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 288 

156.  The  Tapered  Axle  Arm.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 288 

157.  Tapered  Axle  Arm  Pitched.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 288 


Xv4  ILLUSTRATIONS 

158.  An  Unpitched  Tapered  Axle.     (A  Manual  of  Coaching) 288 

159.  The  Dished  Arrangement  of  the  Spokes  in  the  Hub.     (A  Manual  of 

Coaching) 289 

160.  The  Staggered  Arrangement  of  the  Spokes  in  the  Hub.     (A  Manual 

of  Coaching) 290 

161.  One  of  the  Cumbersome  and  Pretentious  Early  Coaches.     (A  Man- 

ual of  Coaching) 290 

162.  Strap  Supports  in  WTiich  the  Body  of  the  Vehicle  was  Slung.     (A 

Manual  of  Coaching) 291 

163.  A  Class  of  English  Harness  Horses.     (Harness  Class  at  the  Inter- 

national Horse  Show,  OljTnpia,  London.    Courtesy  of  the  National 
Stockman  and  Farmer,  Pittsburg,  Pa.) 292 

164.  Philadelphia  JMounted  Police.     (Courtesy  of  Dr.  D.  B.  Fitzpatrick, 

City  ^^eterinarian  of  Philadelphia) 294 

165.  The  Style  of  Riding  to  which  the  Stock  Saddle  is  Best  Adapted.  .  .   294 

166.  Express  Horse  Car  Partitioned  into  Stalls.     (Courtesy  of  Country 

Gentleman,  Philadelphia,  Pa.) 305 

167.  Stock  Car  for  Ship])ing  Horses.     (Standard  Stock-Car  Used  by  the 

Pennsylvania  Railroad.    Courtesy  of  Paul  McKnight,  Live  Stock 
Traffic  Agent) 306 

168.  Just  Off  the  Car  from  the  West.     (Courtesy  of  Paul  Connelly) 307 

169.  Representing  the  Kentucky  Standard  of  Mule  Excellence.      (A 

Pair  of  Blue  Ribbon  Winners  Through  Kentucky  Fair  Circuit) . . .   310 

170.  A  Rugged  Pair  of  More  Drafty  Form  and  Ample  Bone 311 

171.  A  Kentucky  Jack  of  the  Size,  Substance,  and  Shape  Desired  for 

Mule  Breeding 312 

172.  The  Right  Stamp  of  Mares  as  Attested  by  Their  Produce 313 

173.  Park  Horse  to  Victoria,  Correctly  Appointed.    (Dr.  Selwonk,  Cham- 

pion Heavy  Harness  Horse) 316 

174.  Motor  Advantages  Enjoyed  by  the  Horse.     (Courtesy  of  IMr.  Frank 

B.  Rutherford,  Secretary  Pennsylvania  Society  for  the  Prevention 
of  Cruelty  to  Animals) 318 


PART  I 

STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 


PRODUCTIVE 
HORSE  HUSBANDRY 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  HORSE— A  MACHINE 

A  iiORSE^s  usefulness  depends  upon  Lis  power  of  locomotion. 
A  clear  conception  of  his  simple  mechanical  features  affords  the 
best  means  of  measuring  his  serviceability. 

As  a  mechanical  structure  the  horse  consists  chiefly  of  an 
arch,  represented  by  his  vertebra?,  supported  upon  four  upright 
columns,  his  legs.    The  balance  of  this  arch  is  largely  determined 


fROFERrr  urn 
iL estate  a 


Fig,  1. — Hind  lega,  propellers;  forelegs,  supportive  to  the  extent  of  lifting  the  forehand. 

by  the  position  of  the  appended  head  and  neck  at  one  end,  and 
the  tail  at  the  other.  In  the  standing  position  all  four  legs  have 
a  supporting  function,  although  greater  weight  is  borne  by  the 
forelegs.  In  locomotion  the  hind  legs  are  propellers,  the  forelegs 
retaining  their  supportive  function,  the  degree  of  which  is  in- 
creased to  the  extent  of  constituting  a  lift  (Fig.  1).     The  pro- 

3     . 


STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 


pulsive  effort  of  the  hindquarters  is  met  by  the  forehand  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  as  the  body  is 
advanced. 

Locomotion  is  accomplished  by  the  supporting  columns  being 


Fig.  2. — Skeleton  of  the  horse,  showing  the  vertebral  arch  and  the  bone  columns,  one 
pair  of  legs  supporting,  the  alternate  pair,  partially  flexed,  in  a  stride.  1,  bones  of  the  head; 
1',  lower  jaw;  2,  cervical  vertebrae;  3,  dorsal  vertebrae;  4,  lumbar  vertebrae,  5,  sacral  vertebrae 
(sacrum);  6,  coccygeal  vertebrae;  7,  ribs;  8,  sternum  (breast-bone);  9,  pelvis;  9',  ilium;  9", 
ischium;  10,  scapula  (shoulder-blade);  11,  humerus;  12,  radius;  13,  ulna;  14,  carpus  (knee); 
15,  large  metacarpal  bone  (canon);  16,  rudimentary  metacarpal  bones  (splint-bones); 
17,  OS  suffraginis  (long  pastern);  18,  os  coronae  (short  pastern);  19,  os  pedis  (hoof-bone); 
20,  sesamoid  bones;  21,  femur;  22,  patella  (knee-pan,  stifle);  23,  tibia;  24.  fibula;  25,  tarsus, 
or  hock;  26,  large  metatarsal  bone  (canon);  27,  rudimentary  metatarsals  (splint  bones); 
28,  OS  suffraginis  (long  pastern);  29,  os  corona;  (short  pastern);  30,  os  pedis  (hoof-bone, 
"coflBn-bone");  31,  sesamoid  bones. 

broken,  and  the  foot  elevated,  by  the  flexion  of  the  joints,  into  a 
position  from  which  it  is  advanced  b}^  the  subsequent  extension  of 
the  joints.  A  single  advance  of  one  foot  constitutes  a  stride,  and 
a  series  of  strides,  which  involve  in  turn  the  four  feet,  brings  the 
entire  structure  to  an  advanced  position  (Fig.  2).     Each  alter- 


THE  HORSE— A  MACHINE  5 

nate  pair  of  legs  supports  the  weight  while  the  other  pair  is 
executing  a  stride.  The  primary  motive  for  the  stride  is  fur- 
nished by  the  hindquarters,  the  propulsive  action  of  which  dis- 
places the  centre  of  gravity  forward,  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
necessitate  locomotion  in  order  to  maintain  or  regain  the  equi- 
librium.    There  are  five  distinct  phases  of  the  stride : 


li> 


J  I  1.  A  preliminary,  during  which  the  leg  is  undergoing  flexion, 
but  the  foot  has  not  left  the  ground,  at  which  point  the  real  stride 
begins. 

2.  The  breaking  over,  in  which  the  foot  is  raised  heel  first, 
finally  leaving  the  ground  by  being  rocked  up  and  over  at  the 
toe. 


Fig.   o.  —  Each  and  every  phase  uf  the  .stride  is  demonstrated  by  some  one  of  the  ten  foie 
and  ten  hind  Ieg.s  shown. 

3.  Flight,  during  which  the  foot  is  describing  a  more  or  less 
regular  arc  of  a  perpendicular  circle. 

4.  Contact,  at  which  point  the  foot  is  again  brought  to  the 
ground. 

5.  Recovery,  as  the  weight  gradually  falls  on  the  foot  and 
the  original  position  of  the  leg  is  momentarily  established,  pre- 
paratory to  a  repetition  of  the  stride  (Fig.  3). 

Mechanical  Analogy. — In  order  to  carry  out  the  idea  of  a 
mechanical  analog^^  the  digestive  system  of  the  horse  may  be 
regarded  as  the  boiler  whence  the  energy  is  supplied ;  the  mus- 
cular system  as  comprising  the  motors ;  the  power  exerted  by  the 
muscle  motors  at  the  expense  of  the  energy  derived  from  the 
digestive  boilers,  operating  the  bone  columns,  by  the  alternate 


6 


STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 


flexion  and  extension  of  which  locomotion  is  accomplished ;  the 
whole  procedure  being  under  the  control  of  the  nervous  system. 
Muscular  Action. — In  accomplishing  locomotion,  the  part 
played  by  the  muscles  is  fundamental.  The  chief  characteristic 
of  muscular  tissue  is  its  contractility.  Contraction  takes  place 
on  receiving  a  stimulus  through  the  voluntary  nerve,  which  ter- 
minates between  tlie  two  extremities  of  the  muscle.     One  end  of 


Fig.  4. — Situation  of  the  centre  of  gravity  in  the  horse. 


the  muscle  has  a  fixed  insertion ;  the  other  is  attached  to  a  mov- 
able bone  lever.  The  two  bones  are  apposed  end  to  end,  by  means 
of  a  joint,  the  surfaces  of  whicli  permit  of  motion  of  one  or 
both  bones,  the  degree  or  amount  of  motion  depending  upon  the 
kind  of  articulation.  When,  therefore,  the  contracting  muscle 
drawls  the  movable  bone  to  wdiich  it  is  attached  toward  the  bone 
to  which  it  has  its  fixed  insertion,  either  flexion  or  extension  of 
the  joint  takes  place. 


THE  HORSE— A  MACHINE 


The  centre  of  gravity  in  tlie  horse,  standing  naturally,  has 
been  fixed  at  that  2>oint  in  the  median  vertical  plane  of  the  body 
Avhere  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  posterior  extremity  of  the 
breast-bone  intersects  the  line  of  division  between  the  lower  and 
middle  thirds  of  the  body  divided  horizontally  (Fig.  4).  The 
centre  of  gravity  is  stationary  only  when  the  horse  is  standing 


A 

B 

c 

D 

0 

0 

Q 

0 

1 
1 

e 

) 

\ 
\ 
\ 

\ 
\ 

/ 

\ 

V 

\ 
\ 

V 

0 

1 

^       ^ 

h 

Fig.  5. — Diagram  showing  contact  of  feet  in  various  gaits.  A,  standing,  rectangular 
base  of  support;  B,  walking,  triangular  base  of  support;  C,  trotting,  linear  base  of  support; 
D,  running,  point  base  of  support. 

absolutely  stilL  Wlien  moving,  there  is  a  constantly  repeated 
displacement;  ultimately  in  the  direction  taken  by  the  leading 
foot,  although  prior  to  the  commencement  of  the  stride,  there  is 
a  momentary  displacement  in  the  opposite  direction,  as  the 
weight  is  shifted  to  the  supporting  leg  in  order  to  reduce  the 
weight  on  the  side  of  the  foot  to  be  advanced. 


8 


STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 


The  stability  of  equilibrium  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
size  and  especially  the  width  of  the  base  of  support.  It  is  the 
measure  of  jWAver.  Power  and  speed  are  not  correlated  but  oppo- 
site extremes.  Instability  of  equilibrium  is  the  measure  of 
speed.  In  order,  therefore,  that  the  horse  may  take  strides  in 
rapid  succession,  the  base  of  sup2:)ort  must  be  so  reduced  as  to 
permit  of  the  ready  displacement  of  the  centre  of  gravity.  It 
may  then  readily  follow^  the  direction  of  each  stride  in  turn. 

Increase  in  the  rapidity 
of  the  stride  has  the 
effect  of  reducing  the 
size  of  the  base  of  sup- 
port, so  that  the  faster 
a  horse  goes  the  more 
favorable  are  the  condi- 
tions for  still  greater 
speed.  This  is  exempli- 
fied in  the  fact  that  the 
base  of  sujiport  is  a  rec- 
tangle in  case  of  the 
hoi*se  at  rest(Fig.5).  It 
is  reduced  to  the  general 
form  of  a  triangle  as  the 
horse  leads  out  with  one  foot  at  the  walk.  It  takes  tiie  form  of  a 
line  as  the  horse  extends  himself  at  tlie  trot  or  pace ;  and  finally 
it  consists  of  a  point  only  as  but  one  foot  is  on  the  ground  at  the 
run.  On  the  other  hand,  the  horse  at  the  run  is  not  capable  of 
any  draft  effort  except  that  w^hich  comes  from  the  momentum 
he  has  already  attained;  he  has  a  better  chance  at  the  trot;  can 
pull  well  at  the  walk,  and  he  is  capable  of  his  greatest  effort  at 
the  starting  of  the  load,  as  he  is  practically  standing  on  all  fours 
(Fig.  6). 

j^.  ^  REVIEW 

1.  Of  what  does  the  horse's  mechanical  structure  consist  ? 

2.  How  is  locomotion  accompHshed? 

3.  What  constitutes  a  stride  and  what  are  its  phases'? 

4.  Explain  the  part  played  by  the  muscles  in  locomotion. 

5.  Where  is  the  centre  of  gravity  in  the  horse  standing  naturally? 


Fig.  6. — During  the  greatest  effort  the  base  of 
support  is  rectangular,  the  horse  being  practicallj'  on 
all  fours. 


THE  HORSE— A  MACHINE  9 

6.  How  does  the  centre  of  gravity  conduct  itself  when  the  horse  moves  1 

7.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  size  of  the  base  of  support  to  the  stability 

of  the  equilibiium  ? 

8.  What  are  the  changes  in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  base  of  support 

which  may  occur  as  the  horse  progresses  from  the  standing  posi- 
tion to  the  run? 

9.  How  does  the  stability  of  the  equilibrium  measure  the  power  of  which 

a  horse  is  capable? 
10.  How  does  the  instability  of  the  equilibrium  measure  the  speed  of 
which  a  horse  is  capable? 


i/^ 


V 


CHAPTER  II 
CONFORMATION— THE   STRUCTURE 

Conformation  is  the  "  putting  together  "  of  the  parts  which, 
colloctively,  compose  the  animal  structure.  Its  study  has  refer- 
ence to  the  proportions,  dimensions,  external  contour,  and  in- 
ternal constiTiction  of  the  ])arts  and  their  relation  in  the  general 
arrangement.  Not  only  sliouhl  the  parts  he  Avell  formed  indi- 
vidually, hut  they  must  fit  and  hlend  with  the  other  ])arts  in  order 
to  make  the  whole  structure  symmetrical  and  sound.  The 
streng-th  of  a  chain  is  measured  hy  the  strength  of  its  weakest 
link.  In  the  same  manner  defection  in  one  part  of  conformation 
may  offset  an  otherwise  perfect  structure.  Unlike  a  chain,  how- 
ever, the  parts  or  units  of  conformation  in  a  horse  are  not  iden- 
tical. Some  are  of  greater  relative  importance  than  others,  and 
interfere  more  with  serviceability  in  case  they  prove  defective. 
A  study  of  conformation  consists  in  the  detection  of  points  of 
superiority  and  inferiority  of  structure,  and  in  allotting  to  each 
their  proper  significance. 

For  the  purpose  of  studying  conformation,  the  structure  may 
be  divided  into  regions  and  each  region  subdivided  into  its  com- 
ponent parts,  with  specifications  for  each  (Fig.  7). 

Head  and  Neck. — Head. — Size  proportionate  to  size  of 
horse;  dimensions — ^length,  breadth,  and  depth — proportionate 
to  each  other ;  face  line  straight ;  features  sharply  defined  ;  lower 
jaw  strong  with  open  angle  between  branches  so  as  not  to  com- 
press larynx  when  neck  is  flexed. 

Forehead. — Broad,  full  and  flat. 

Ears. — Medium  size,  fine,  pointed,  set  close,  carried  alert. 

Eyes. — Prominently  set,  large,  full,  clear,  bright,  lids  thin, 
uniform  curvature,  no  angle  caused  by  atrophy  (Fig.  8). 

Muzzle. — "Not  too  fine,  nostrils  large  but  not  dilated,  lips 
thin,  trim,  teeth  regular,  sound. 

Nech. — Long,  lean,  crest  marked,  but  not  too  heavy,  throat' 
latch  fine,  head  well  set  on. 
10 


CONFORMATION— THE  STRUCTURE 


U 


•  s00503cowo5w^^^;^o^5tctot^^to^o^o^otOl-'>-'l-'l-J^-'^-'l-l^->^-'l-•      ^        .^.  ^ 


I X  iT 


3  • 


K3^  >^c:.»:2 
p  ~  3  S  £ 


oa« 


"O  t» 


3 


ft)  o 

3 
so 

rt) 
O 


12 


STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 


Forehand. — Withers. — Well   set   up,   extending  well  back 
muscular  but  neither  low  nor  lieavy,  free  from  scars. 

Shoulders. — Long,  oblique,  smooth. 

Arms. — Short,  muscular^  carried  forward. 

Forearms. — Broad  and  muscular. 

Knees. — Size    proportionate    to    the    weight   of   the    horse 
straight,  broad,  deep,  smooth,  strongly  supported. 

Canons 
back. 

FetlocJcs. — AVide,  smootli,  well  supported. 


Short,  broad,  fluted.     Tendons,  smooth,  well  set 


Fig.  S. — Normal  ej-e. 


Pasterns. — Long,  sloping  but  strong. 

Feet. — Size  in  pro])ortion  to  the  weight  of  the  horse,  uni- 
form ;  form  circular,  walls  straight,  slope  corresponding  to  slope 
of  pastern ;  height  at  toe,  side  wall,  and  heel  as  3  to  2  to  1.  Sole 
concave,  bars  strong,  frog  large,  elastic,  heels  Avide,  full ;  texture 
of  horn  dense,  smooth,  dark  colored  (Fig.  9). 

.  Legs. — Viewed  from  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  dropped 
from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into 
two  lateral  halves  (Fig.  10).  Viewed  from  the  side,  a  perpen- 
dicular line  dropped  from  the  tuberosity  on  the  scapula  should 


CONFORMATION— THE  STRUCTURE 


13 


pass  tliroiigli  the  centre  of  the  elboAV-joint  and  meet  the  ground 
at  the  centre  of  the  foot  ^  (Fig.  11). 

Body. — Chest. — ^Deep, 
full,  large  girth. 

Ribs.  —  Long,     well 
sprung,  close. 


Back.- 


-Short,  straight. 


strong. 

Loins. — Broad,  strong, 
coupling  well  back,  smooth ; 
flank,  close,  full,  deep; 
top  line  short,  level ;  under 
line  long,  let  well  down  in 
flank. 

Hindquarters. —  Hips, 
— Wide,  smooth,  level. 

Croup. — Long,  level, 
broad,  muscular. 

Tail. — Set  high,  well 
carried. 

Thighs. — Long,  mas- 
cular,  deep. 

Stifles. — Wide,  thick, 
muscular. 

Gashins. — Long,  broad,  muscular. 

Ilochs. — Size  in  proportion  to  weight  of  horse,  wide,  deep, 
straight,  flat,  smooth,  point  prominent,  well  supported. 


Fig.  9. — Plantar  surface  of  right  fore-hoot: 

0,  a,  bearing  surface  of  the  toe;  a,  b,  bearing  sur- 
face of  the  side  walls  or  manimse;  b,  c,  bearing 
surface  of  the  quarters;  d,  buttress,  or  angle  formed 
by  wall  and  bar;  e,  bar;  /,  sole;  /',  branches  of  the 
sole;  g,  white  line;  it  passes  between  the  sole  and 
bars  and  ends  at  g';  h,  horny  frog;  i,  branches  of 
the  frog;  A-,  heels,  bulbs,  or  glomes  of  the  hoof; 

1,  median  lacuna  of  horny  frog.  Between  the  bars 
and  the  horny  frog  lie  the  lateral  lacunae  of  the 
frog. 


*  The  correct  standing  position  of  the  horse  at  rest  has  formerly 
been  determined  from  side  view  by  a  perpendicular  line  dropped  from 
the  tuberosity  of  the  scapula,  which  it  was  claimed  should  divide  the  leg 
to  the  fetlock  and  meet  the  ground  just  back  of  the  heel.  It  has  been 
frequently  demonstrated,  however,  that  the  best  horses  do  not  confonn 
to  this  standard,  but  show,  as  a  iiile,  a  slight  deviation  downward  and 
backward,  which  brino-g  the  fetlock  posterior  to  the  line  which  termi- 
nates in  the  centre  of  the  foot.  Recently  Doctor  H.  Schwyter,  technical 
secretary  to  the  federal  chief  veterinarian  of  Switzerland,  has  established 
the  direction  described  above  as  beinj::  coiTect.  By  it  the  centres  of 
weight-bearing  and  of  the  base  of  support  coincide  as  they  should. 


14 


STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 


Canons^  Fetlocl's,  Pasterns,  Feet. — Size  in  iDroportion  to 
weight  of  horse,  wide,  deep,  straight,  flat,  smooth,  point  prom- 
inent, well  supj^orted. 


Fig.  10. — The  correct  standing 
position  of  the  foreleg,  viewed  from 
in  front,  as  determined  bj'  the  plumb 
line. 


Fig.  11. — The  correct  stand- 
ing position  of  the  foreleg,  viewed 
from  the  side,  as  determined  by  the 
plumb  line. 


Legs. — Viewed  from  the  rear,  a  perpendicular  line  dropped 
from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  divide  leg  and  foot  into 
lateral  halves  (Fig.  12)  ;  viewed  from  the  side,  this  line  should 


CONFORMATION— THE  STRUCTURE 


15 


toucli  the  point  of  the  hock  and  meet  the  ground  some  little  dis- 
tance back  of  the  heel.  A  perpendicular  line  dropped  from  the 
hip- joint  should  meet  the  ground  midway  between  heel  and  toe 
(Fig.  13). 


^■;■^:■ 

i\ 

v^ '  '  1 

i  \ 

i 

1 

') 

Fio.  12. — The  correct  standing 
position  of  the  hind  leg,  viewed  from 
the  rear,  as  determined  by  the  plumb 
line. 


Fig.  13. — The  correct  standing 
position  of  the  hind  leg,  viewed 
from  the  side,  as  determined  by 
the  plumb  line. 


REVIEW 

1.  What  sort  of  an  eye  should  be  avoided  in  selecting  a  horse? 

2.  Where  are  the  withers  and  what  are  their  desirable  features? 

3.  When  is  the  foreleg  in  the  correct  standing  position  and  of  what 

importance  is  it  ? 


16  STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 

4.  Describe  the  gi-ound  surface  of  a  normal  forefoot. 

5.  In  a  horse  of  good  confonnation,  how  should  the  top  line  compare 

with  the  under  line? 

6.  What  are  the  common  undesirable  features  of  the  croup? 

7.  What  kind  of  stifles  should  a  horse  have  ? 

8.  What  are  the  graskins? 

9.  Describe  the  hock  that  is  most  likely  to  remain  sound  under  stress 

of  wear, 
10.  What  is  the  importance  of  having  the  hind  legs  well  set? 


CHAPTER  III 

WAY  OF  GOING— THE  FUNCTION 

The  temi,  waj  of  going,  is  self-defining.     Pace  refers  to  the 
rate  at  Avliicli  the  horse  moves.     Action  implies  flexion  of  knees 
_^jtH(LJiocks. 
h\(J~'  The  Stride  presents  for  study  the  following  features : 

1.  Leng-th,  the  distance  from  the  point  of  breaking  over  to 
the  jDoint  of  contact. 

2.  Directness,  the  line  in  which  the  foot  is  carried  forward 
during  the  stride. 

3.  Rapidity,  the  time  consumed  in  taking  the  stride. 

4.  Power,  the  pulling  force  exerted  at  each  stride. 

5.  Height,  the  degTee  to -which  the  foot  4s  elevated  in  the 
stride,  indicated  hy -the"  radius  of  the  arc  described. 

6.  Spring,  the  manner  in  which  the  weight  is  settled  upon 
the  leg  and  foot  at  the  completion  of  the  stride. 

7.  'Pegiilarity,   the   rhythmical   precision   wdtli   which   each 
^  stride  is  taken,  in  turn. 

8.  Balance,  the  relative  degree  of  any  of  the  other  features 
of  the  stride  manifested  by  fore  and  hind  legs. 

/^tX^gt^^THE   GAITS 

A  gait  is  a  particular  way  of  going  which  is  characterized  by 
definite  and  distinctive  features  regularly  executed. 

Walk  is  a  slow,  flat-footed,  four-beat  gait;  one  of  the  most 
useful,  whether  in  harness  or  under  saddle,  if  executed  with  snap 
and  animation,  as  it  should  be. 

Trot  is  a  rapid,  two-beat  gait,  in  w^hicli  the  diagonal  fore  and 
hind  legs  act  together.  The  fast  stepping  trot  is  characterized 
by  the  length  and  rapidity  with  wdiich  the  individual  strides 
are  accomplished,  and  is  executed  with  an  extreme  degree 
of  extension  (Fig.  14).  The  high  stepping  trot  is  character- 
ized by  the  height  and  spring  of  the  stride,  the  horse  placing 
2  17 


18 


STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 


himself,  going  collectedly  and  executing  each  step  with  an  ex- 
treme degree  of  flexion  and  the  utmost  precision  (Fig.  15). 

Pace  is  a  rapid,  two-beat  gait,  in  which  the  lateral  fore  and 
hind  legs  act  togetlier  (Fig.  16).  It  is  characterized  by  the 
readiness  with  which  pacers  can  get  away  at  speed,  a  minimum 
of  concussion,  more  or  less  side  motion,  the  absence  of  much  knee 
fokl  (although  some  pacers  are  trapi:)y),  and  the  necessity  for 
smooth,  hard  footing  and  easy  draft,  for  its  execution.  It  is 
difficult  for  most  pacers  to  go  in  deep  or  heavy  footing,  such  as 


Fig.   14. — The  fast  trot,  characterized  as  a  diagonal  gait  of  extreme  extension  and  rapidity 

of  stride. 


fresh  snow,  sand  or  mud,  and  they  have  a  jerky,  unsteady  way 
of  pulling  a  wagon,  if  any  pull  is  necessary.  The  increased 
draft  of  an  additional  person  up  behind  or  of  a  rough  bit  of  road 
will  swing  most  pacers  into  a  trot  if  they  can  trot  at  all.  Jogging 
down  hill  will  force  some  trotters  to  pace,  while  an  up  grade  will 
set  pacers  to  trotting.  The  pace  is  more  essentially  a  speed  than 
a  road  gait. 

Amble  is  a  lateral  gait  usually  distinguished  from  the  pace 
by  being  slower  and  more  broken  in  cadence. 

Rack  is  a  fast,  flashy,  four-beat  gait,  more  clearly  defined 
by  the  discarded  name  '^  single  foot."  It  is  rarely  executed  vol- 
untarily but  under  compulsion  of  hand  and  heel,  and  is  charac- 


WAY  OF  GOING— THE  FUNCTION 


19 


terized  by  quite  a  display  of  knee  action,  and  many  horses  can 
rack  very  fast.  Wiile  most  agreeable  to  the  rider,  it  is  most 
distressing  to  the  horse,  and  should  therefore  be  called  for  with 
discretion. 

Gallop  is  a  fast,  three-beat  gait,  in  which  two  diagonal  legs 
are  paired,  their  single  beat  falling  l>etween  the  successive  beats 
of  the  other  two  legs,  the  hind  one  of  which  makes  the  first  beat 
of  the  three  (Fig.  17).    With  the  third  and  last  beat  the  horse  is 


Fig.  15. — The  high-stepping  trot,  showing  extreme  flexion  of  knees  and  hocks. 


projected  clear  of  all  contact  with  the  ground,  as  in  a  leap,  and 
there  is  a  period  of  silence,  broken  by  the  contact  of  the  indepen- 
dent hind  foot,  in  the  commencement  of  a  new  series.  The  two 
legs  acting  independently,  the  fore,  with  which  the  horse  leads, 
and  its  diagonal  hind,  naturally  bear  more  weight  and  are  subject 
to  more  fatigue  than  are  the  other  pair  which  act  simultaneously, 
and,  therefore,  divide  or  bear  jointly  the  Avork.  The  hind  leg 
receiving  the  full  weight  at  the  phase  of  contact  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  leap  bears  more  than  the  foreleg,  which  supports  the  weight 
alone  just  before  the  projection  of  the  horse  at  the  beginning  of 
the  leap.     The  gallop  may  become  so  fast  as  to  break  the  simul- 


20  STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 

taneous  beats  of  the  diagonal  pair,  the  hind  foot  striking  first 
and  causing  four  beats,  although  following  in  such  rapid  suc- 
cession as  to  be  distinguished  with  difficulty. 

Canter  is  a  restrained  gallop  in  which  tlie  wxnght  is  sustained 
chiefly  by  the  hindquarters,  the  lightened  forehand  rising  and 
falling  in  a  high,  bounding  fashion,  the  gait  being  executed  in 
a  slow,  collected,  rhythmical  way,  on  either  lead  at  command. 
Since  the  canter,,  like  the  gallop,  imposes  a  special  wear  on  the 
leading  forefoot  and  its  diagonal  hind,  the  lead  should  be  changed 
frequently.  AVhen  the  sinuiltaneous  beat  is  of  a  lateral  instead 
of  a  diagonal  pair  of  feet,  and  falls  between  the  successive  beats 


Fig.  16. — The  pace,  a  lateral  gait  of  extreme  extension  and  rapidity  of  stride. 

of  the  other  lateral  pair,  the  leading  fore  and  hind  on  the  same 
side,  it  constitutes  a  cross  or  lateral  canter,  and  is  productive  of 
a  twisting  motion  to  one  in  the  saddle. 

Jump,  whether  high  or  broad,  is  accomplished  by  the  forelegs 
raising  tlie  forehand  at  the  take-off,  thus  bringing  the  body  in  line 
with  the  direction  in  which  the  jump  is  to  be  taken,  wdien  a 
strong,  propulsive  effort  of  the  hindquarters  carries  it  over  or 
across,  as  the  case  may  be  (Fig.  IS).  In  alighting,  the  forefeet 
come  in  contact  with  the  ground  first  and  almost  simultaneously, 
the  leading  foot  being  a  little  in  advance,  after  which  the  horse 
quickly  gathers  himself  in  a  stride  to  avoid  the  hind  feet,  w^hich 
follow  quickly  and  strike  the  ground  slightly  ahead  of  the  im- 
prints of  the  forefeet. 


WAY  OP  GOING— THE  FUNCTION 


21 


22 


STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 


The  leap  (preparation). 


The  leap  (propulsion) 


The  leap  (passing  the  obstacle). 


The  leap  (descent  in  front).  The  leap  (descent  behind). 

Fig.  is. — The  different  phases  and  contacts  in  the  jump. 


WAY  OF  GOING— THE  FUNCTION  23 

Running  walk  is  a  slow,  single  foot  or  four-beat  gait,  inter- 
mediate between  the  walk  and  rack,  suggestive  of  a  continued 
breaking  out  of  a  walk.  It  is  the  business  gait  in  the  South  and 
West,  where  gaited  horses  are  ridden  extensively,  since  it  can  be 
maintained  all  day.  It  is  good  for  six  to  eight  miles  an  hour, 
with  the  greatest  possible  ease  to  both  horse  and  rider. 

The  fox  trot  is  a  short,  broken,  nodding  trot,  in  which  the 
hind  legs  go  in  more  or  less  of  a  lateral  step.  It  is  used  as  a 
substitute  for  the  running  walk. 

The  stepping  pace  is  distinct  from  the  ordinary  pace  of  the 
harness  horse,  being  characterized  by  very  little  if  any  side 
motion  and  a  somewhat  broken  cadence  in  the  action  of  the  lateral 
pairs  of  legs. 

The  traverse  is  a  side  step,  in  which  the  forehand  and  hind- 
quarters respond  to  both  rein  and  heel;  it  is  useful  in  open- 
ing and  closing  gates,  when  riding  after  cattle,  also  to  "  dress  " 
or  take  position  in  a  troop  drill. 

FACTORS  DETERMINING  WAY  OF  GOING 

The  factors  determining  a  horse's  way  of  going  are  either 
natural  or  acquired.  The  former  consist  of  type,  conformation, 
direction  of  leg  and  form  of  foot,  and  breeding.  The  acquired 
influences  are  schooling,  handling,  and  mechanical  appliances. 

Type. — The  close  observer  of  athletic  events  is  impressed 
with  either  the  distinctiveness  which  exists  among  the  winners 
of  the  different  events  or  the  similarity  of  type  of  those  who  excel 
in  the  same  feats. 

On  account  of  the  correlation  between  form  and  function, 
a  horse  must  do  as  he  is.  His  capabilities  in  the  way  of  per- 
formance will  be  limited  in  some  respects  and  extended  in  others, 
according  to  the  plan  of  his  structure.  A  short,  thick,  low  set 
horse  will  have  more  power  than  speed,  the  reverse  being  equally 
true.  A  cobby  horse  has  a  trappy  stride,  while  the  stride  of  a 
tall,  rangy  horse  is  characterized  by  reach. 

Conformation. — A  horse  low  in  the  forehand  is  liable  to 
forge,  while  one  long  and  loosely  coupled  will  have  a  tendency 
toward  an  incoordinate  way  of  going. 


24 


STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 


Direction  of  Leg  and  Form  of  Foot. — The  relation  that  the 
direction  of  the  leg  bears  to  the  f onn  of  the  foot  is  most  intimate, 
and  each  is  an  important  factor  in  determining  the  directness, 
especially,  of  the  stride.  The  form  of  the  foot  fixes  the  point  at 
which  the  leg  breaks  over ;  the  centre  of  the  toe,  or  the  outer  or 
inner  quarter  depending  upon  whether  the  foot  is  symmetrical  or 


i) 


Q 

T 


Q 


Q 


Course  taken  by  the  foot  in 
correct  standing  position. 


0 


Q 


0 


0 


0 


Course  taken  by  the  foot  Course  taken  by  the  foot 

in  base  or  toe  wide  direction        in  base  or  toe  narrow  direc- 
of  leg.  tion  of  leg. 

Fia.  19. — Relation  of  direction  of  leg  to  course  taken  by  foot  in  the  stride. 


the  inner  or  outer  quarter  is  higher.  The  direction  of  the  leg  de- 
termines the  course  taken  by  the  foot  during  its  stride,  whether 
advanced  in  a  straight  line  or  describing  the  arc  of  a  circle  inward 
or  outward,  depending  upon  the  deviation  in  the  direction  of  the 
leg  (Fig.  19).  The  form  of  the  foot  and  the  dire<»tion  of  the  leg 
are  correlated,  usually,  so  that  their  combined  influence  on  the 
way  of  going  may  be  considerable. 


WAY  OF  GOING— THE  FUNCTION 


25 


The  following  are  the  common  deviations  in  the  direction  of 
Foreleg  viewed  from  the  side:    Figs.  20,  21  and  22. 

24,  25,  26,  27 


the  leg. 


Figs.   23, 


Foreleg  viewed  from  in  front 
and  28. 

Hind  leg  viewed  from  the  side :  Fig.  29. 
Hind 


eg  viewed  from  the  rear:  Figs.  30  and  31. 


Deviations 
in  the 
direction 
ofthe 
hor  se' 


Fore  legs  ■ 


Hind  legs 


Viewed  from 
in  front 


Viewed  from 
the  side 


Viewed  from 
the  rear 


Viewed  from 
the  side 


Knees  too  close — knock  kneed. 
Knees  too  wide  apart — bow  kneed. 
Fetloclcs   close,  toes  wide  —  splay 
I      footed. 

[  Toes  narrow — pigeon  toed. 
Standing  over  at  the  knees— knee 

sprung  or  buck  kneed. 
Standing   back  at  the  knees — calf 

kneed. 
Forefeet  too  far  advanced—  camped. 
Forefeet    too   far  back  —  standing 

under. 
Steep  pasterns. 
Weak  pasterns. 
(  Hocks  too  wide  apart— bandy  legged. 
1  Hocks    too    close    together  —  cow 
hocked. 
Fetlocks  close,  toes  wide. 
Toes  narrow. 

'  Hock  bent  or  acute  angled,  the  point 
of  the  hock  usually  being  too  far 
back— sickle  or  saber  hocked. 
Hock  straight  or  open  angled. 
Steep  pasterns. 
Weak  pasterns. 


Breeding  has  most  to  do  with  the  particnlar  gait  at  which  a 
horse  goes.  One  may  visit  a  collection  of  foals  or  weanlings  in 
a  field,  and  npon  starting  them  off  across  the  field  note  that  some 
sqnare  away  at  a  long,  rcachy  trot,  others  go  high  enough  to 
clear  the  tops  of  the  daisies,  while  still  others  break  away  in 
an  easy  gallop,  each  gait  being  executed  with  equal  ease  and 
naturalness.  The  reason  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  first 
described  lot  are  Trotting-bred,  the  second  are  Hackneys  and 
the  others  are  Thoroughbreds.  Tn  each  of  these  the  particular 
way  of  going  is  a  matter  of  breed  character,  and  the  instinct  to 
go  that  Avay  is  almost  as  strong  as  for  either  the  field  dog  to  point 
or  the  game  bird  to  battle. 

Heredity. — Type,  conformation,  direction  of  leg  and  form 


26 


STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 


of  foot  are  all  more  or  less  hereditary  characters  and  are  asso- 
ciated with  a  corresponding  instinct.  A  colt  is  not  likely  to  be 
endowed  by  inheritance  with  an  instinct  to  trot  and  at  the  same 
time  inherit  a  strncture  which  is  only  adapted  to  galloping. 
Horses  are  occasionally  seen,  however,  which,  though  bred  prop- 
erly, manifest  a  disposition  to  do  what  they  are  physically  inca- 
pable of  doing.  Others  seem  striicturally  qualified  for  superior 
performance  of  some  one  sort,  but  fall  far  short  of  doing  anything 
remarkable,  because  they  do  not  know  how.     Hence,  we  know 


Fig.  20. — Knee-sprung 
or  over  on  the  knees. 


Fig.    21.— Calf-kneed. 


Fig.  22.— Too  straight 
pastern. 


that  the  highest  order  of  performance  can  only  be  attained  when 
the  inherited  instinctive  tendencies  are  in  line  with  the  horse's 
inherited  physical  development. 

Schooling. — Horses,  like  men,  reflect  in  their  attainments: 
First,  their  inherent  capabilities,  and,  second,  what  has  been  made 
of  them.  All  the  graduates  of  a  given  academic  or  gymnasium 
course  are  not  equals,  either  in  their  mental  or  physical  accom- 
plishments. Neither  are  all  those  who  have  been  deprived  of 
any  educational  advantages  destined  to  a  common  level  or  rank 
in  society.  Some  from  the  latter  class  may  even  reach  a  higher 
rung  on  the  commercial  or  social  ladder  than  others  from  the 


WAY  OF  GOING— THE  FUNCTION 


27 


first  class.  An  individual  may  owe  his  proficiency  to  either  his 
opportunities  or  what  is  in  him,  exclusively,  or  to  a  favorable 
combination  of  both.  Only  the  highest  education,  in  accordance 
with  the  strongest  natural  aptitude,  can  accomplish  the  greatest 
attainment.  Hence,  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  spend  time  and 
money  in  educating  a  colt  in  ways  to  which  he  is  not  adapted. 
It  is  a  difficult  and  unsatisfactory  task  to  school  a  born  trotter 
to  an  acceptable  show  of  action.  Ample  proof  of  the  accuracy 
of  this  statement,  reversed,  is  found  in  the  earlier  days  of  horse 


Fig.  23. — Baae  narrow, 
toe  wide;  nigger-heeled  or 
splay-footed. 


Fig.    24. — Toe  narrow 
or  pigeon-toed. 


Fio.    25. — Knock-kneed. 


shows  in  this  country.  It  was  common  to  find  single-minded 
horsemen  resorting  to  all  sorts  of  ingenious  ways  and  means  of 
preventing  a  horse  from  going  high  in  order  to  make  a  trotter  of 
him.  They  often  gave  up  in  despair,  and  sacrificed  him  to  the 
knowing  buyer,  who,  by  changing  tactics  and  schooling  him  along 
the  line  of  action  for  which  he  had  a  strong  inclination,  finally 
turned  him  out  a  show  horse  of  note.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
take  a  natural  character  and  develop  it  by  artificial  means,  we 
may  expect  results  far  in  advance  of  what  could  otherwise  be 
obtained.  'No  race  or  show  horse,  of  any  class,  comes  to  his  high 
degree  of  proficiency  without  an  education.     The  trotter  must 


28 


STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 


not  only  be  trained  to  make  him  pliysically  fit  for  the  race  but  he 
nnist  be  tauglit  to  step.  The  same  is  true  of  actors,  saddle  horses, 
jumpers,  and  others.  They  are  all  given  the  natural  aptitude  to 
begin  Avith,  but  that  is  not  sufficient  to  get  the  best  out  of  them. 
Handling. — Handling  is  but  the  application  of  the  school- 
ing. It  is  painful  to  see  a  well-schooled  saddle  horse,  to  whom 
every  little  movement  of  hand  or  heel  has  a  meaning,  with  some 
awkward  man  up  who  is  reaping  the  fruits  of  his  ignorant  hand- 
ling in  a  ride  that  is  most  distressing  both  to  himself  and  his 


Fig.  2G. — Bow -kneed. 


Fig.  27. — Too  close  at 
ground. 


IiG.  28.— Too  wide  at 
ground. 


mount ;  or  to  see  a  horse,  on  whom  much  effort  has  been  spent  in 
teaching  him  to  flex  his  neck,  knees,  and  hocks  in  a  proud,  col- 
lected, high  way  of  going,  put  in  light  harness,  with  the  omni- 
present Kimball  Jackson  overdraw,  and  a  heavy-fisted  driver  up 
who  boasts  of  how  fast  the  horse  can  step.  It  is  as  essential  that 
the  handling  be  in  accord  with  the  schooling  as  that  the  schooling 
should  follow  the  line  of  natural  aptitude.  The  handling  offers 
the  stimulus,  the  schooling  makes  possible  the  response;  har- 
mony is,  therefore,  imperative.  There  are  individual  differences 
in  the  methods  of  different  handlers,  though  the  same  gen- 
eral system  may  be  employed.    Among  all  race  and  show  riders 


WAY  OF  GOING— THE  FUNCTION 


29 


or  drivers,  each  fundamentally  correct  in  his  methods,  there  is 
always  one  who  is  capable  of  better  results  than  the  others. 

Mechanical  appliances  are  chiefly  accessories  to  the  handling 
and  schooling  of  horses.  They  consist  of  the  bit,  shoes,  weight, 
and  hopples. 

Bit. — The  influence  of  the  bit  is  strongly  suggestive  of  one 
or  the  other  ways  of  going,  as  discussed  under  equitation. 

Shoes. — The  style  of  the  shoe  and  the  dressing  of  the  foot 
for  its  application  have  considerable  influence  on  the  way  of 


Fig.  29.— Bent,    sabre,    or    sickle        Fig.  30.— Cow-hocked.        Fig.  31.— Bandy-legged  or 
hock.  wide  at  the  hocks. 


going.  By  shortening  or  lengthening  the  too,  the  breaking  over 
is  either  facilitated  or  retarded,  with  a  consequent  shortening 
or  lengthening  of  the  stride ;  by  raising  or  lowering  the  inner  or 
outer  quarter,  the  point  at  which  breaking  over  takes  place  may 
be  regulated,  ^vithin  limits. 

^Ye^gllt. — By  either  putting  weight  on  or  taking  it  off  the 
foot,  the  stride  is  heightened  or  lowered.  Weight  may  be  secured 
either  by  permitting  an  abnormal  gTOwth  of  the  foot  itself  or  in 
the  shoe.  Weight  fixed  at  the  toe  promotes  extension  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  pendulum,  the  weight  coming  into  play  toward  the 


30  STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTION 

end  of  the  stride  to  carry  the  foot  out.  On  the  other  hand,  weight 
well  back  in  the  shoe,  toward  the  heel,  is  believed  to  be  conducive 
to  action  by  calling  for  extra  flexion,  in  order  to  lift  the  foot. 
Whatever  alterations  are  made  in  the  matter  of  shoeing  or 
weighting  must  be  gradual,  in  order  not  to  unbalance  the  horse 
in  his  stride. 

Hopples. — By  uniting  a  hind  and  a  fore  leg  by  means  of 
hopples,  a  horse  is  held  to  his  stride  and  prevented  from  break- 
ing, mixing,  or  going  any  other  gait.  The  straps  are  crossed  or 
straight,  depending  upon  whether  the  horse  trots  or  paces. 
Hopples  about  the  pasterns  are  sometimes  put  on  harness  horses 
to  develop  action. 

Going  Surface — While  not  of  a  mechanical  nature,  the  char- 
acter of  the  surface  on  which  the  horse  steps  has  a  marked  influ- 
ence on  the  kind  of  stride  he  takes.  As  a  general  rule,  heavv, 
soft,  or  deep  going  causes  a  high  stride,  while  a  hard,  smooth 
surface  is  more  conducive  to  speed.  Of  the  speed  horses,  trotters 
and  pacers  require  the  hardest,  smoothest  track.  Heavy  going 
frequently  influences  doublc-gaited  horses  to  trot  instead  of  pace 
and  seriously  interferes  with  pacing  performance.  Runners  do 
best  on  the  turf  or  a  dirt  track  that  has  had  the  surface  loosened 
by  a  scratch  harrow. 

Defects  and  Peculiarities  in  Way  of  Going. — Forging. — 
Striking  the  ends  of  the  branches  or  the  under  surface  of  the 
shoe  of  a  forefoot  with  tlie  toe  of  the  hind  foot. 

Interfering. — Striking  the  supporting  leg  at  the  fetlock  with 
the  foot  of  the  striding  leg.  It  is  predisposed  in  horses  with  base 
narrow,  toe  wide,  or  splay-footed  standing  position. 
^^  Paddling. — An  outward  deviation  in  the  direction  of  the 
stride  of  the  foreleg,  the  result  of  a  toe  narrow  or  pigeon-toed 
standing  position. 

Winging. — Exaggerated  paddling,  noticeable  in  high 
going  horses. 

Winding. — A  twisting  of  the  striding  leg  around  in  front 
of  the  supporting  leg  in  much  the  same  manner  as  in  pad- 
dling. This  is  most  commonly  seen  in  wide-fronted  draft  horses 
at  the  walk. 


WAY  OF  GOING— THE  FUNCTION  31 

Scalping, — Hitting  the  front  of  the  hind  foot  above  or  at  the 
line  of  the  hair  against  the  toe  of  the  breaking  over  forefoot. 

Speedy  Cutting. — The  spreading  trotter  at  speed  hits  the 
hind  leg  above  the  scalping  mark  against  the  inside  of  the  break- 
ing over  forefoot  as  he  passes. 

Cross-firing. — Essentially  forging  in  pacers,  in  which  they 
hit  the  inside  of  the  near  fore  and  off  hind  foot  or  the  reverse  in 
the  air  as  the  stride  of  the  hind  leg  is  abont  completed  and  the 
stride  of  the  foreleg  just  begun. 

Pointing. — A  stride  in  which  extension  is  much  more  marked 
than  flexion.  It  is  especially  characteristic  of  the  Thorough- 
bred. The  same  term  is  also  used  to  indicate  the  resting  of  one 
forefoot  in  an  advanced  position  to  relieve  the  back  tendons. 

Dwelling. — A  perceptible  pause  in  the  flight  of  the  foot,  as 
though  the  stride  had  been  completed  before  the  foot  had  reached 
the  ground.    Most  noticeable  in  actors. 

Trappy. — A   quick,   high,   but  comparatively  short   stride. 

Pounding. — A  heavy  contact  usually  accompanying  a 
high  stride. 

Boiling. — Excessive  lateral  shoulder  motion  as  in  wide 
fronted  horses. 

REVIEW 

1.  Name  the  features  of  the  stride. 

2.  How  may  the  pace  be  distinguished  from  the  trot? 

3.  What  are  the  special  advantages  and  disadvantages  under  which 

pacers  labor? 

4.  How  may  the  gait  of  a  racking  horse  be  recognized  in  the  dark? 

5.  Describe  a  cross  canter. 

6.  What  is  the  importance  of  changing  leads  at  the  canter  or  gallop? 

7.  How  may  a  horse's  way  of  going  be  predicted  without  seeing  hira 

move? 

8.  To  what  extent  may  the  schooling  determine  the  horse's  way  of 

going? 

9.  What  effect  does  weight  in  the  foot,  also  the  surface  over  which  the 

horse  steps,  have  on  the  stride? 
10.  What  is  understood  by  forging,  interfering,  pointing,  and  dwelling's 


PART  II 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  TYPES  OF  HORSES 

A  HORSE^s  usefulness  depends  upon  his  power  of  locomotion, 
and  whether  he  moves  with  power,  speed,  show,  or  to  carry 
weight  will  determine  Avhether  he  is  a  draft,  a  race,  a  show,  or 
a  saddle  horse.  The  sum  total  of  those  characteristics,  by  which 
adaptability  to  the  different  kinds  of  service  is  detennined,  con- 
stitutes tlie  type. 

Draft  Type. — The  service  of  the  draft  horse  is  to  furnish 
poAver  to  move  the  heaviest  of  loads,  usually  over  the  paved 
surfaces  of  traffic-congested  city  streets  (Fig.  32).  Special 
efficiency  in  this  line  of  service  depends  upon  the  possession  of : 
^^^^  1.  Wei^-ht  sufficient  (1500  to  2400  pounds)  to  hold  the  horse 
'  to  a  secure  footing  during  muscular  exertion,  by  increasing  the 
friction  between  the  shoe  and  the  opposing  hard,  smooth  surface 
of  the  roadway  or  pavement.  Weight  thrown  into  the  collar 
also  supplements  muscular  exertion. 

2.  Low  station,  to  bring  the  centre  of  gravity  as  near  the  base 
of  support  as  possible,  thereby  increasing  stability  of  equilib- 
rium, as  stability  of  equilibrium  is  the  measure  of  power. 
Length  of  leg  is  largely  determined  by  length  of  canon  bone,  and 
a  short  canon  is  correlated  with,  and  therefore  indicative  of  a 
short,  broad,  deep,  and  compact  horse. 

3.  Breadth^to.  give  a  horse  ample  skeletal  foundation  for  the 
support  of  great  muscular  development,  and  also  to  increase 
laterally  the  base  of  suj^i^rt,  which  affords  a  much  more  stable 
balance  and  in  turn  increases  the  power. 

4.  Depth,  to  afford  heart,  lung,  and  digestive  capacity,  which 
is  a  most  essential  asset  to  a  horse  which  must  expend  much 
energy,  almost  continually,  for  long  hours,  and  six  days  a  week. 

5.  Compactness,  to  insure  a  short  vertebral  column,  bring- 
ing the  source  of  power,  the  hindquarters,  nearer  to  the  applica- 
tion of  power  at  the  shoulder,  thereby  minimizing  loss  in  trans- 
mission, and  making  for  strength  and  rigidity  of  the  shaft,  as 
it  were. 

35 


36 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


6.  ^Massiveness,  which  suggests  heavy  muscling  with  the 
thick,  bulky  power  variety ;  therefore,  a  horse  cannot  be  drafty 
without  being  massive. 

7.  ^ime.  The  muscles  oj^erate  the  bone  levers  by  contracting 
upon  them  through  a  fixed  point  and  a  movable  insertion.  For 
that  reason  the  resisting  power  of  the  bone  must  be  proportionate 


Fig.  32.- 


-The  draft  type,  showing  the  weight,  the  low,  wide,  compact,  massive  form,  the 
bone  and  the  muscling  which  characterize  the  horse  of  power. 


to  the  contracting  force  of  the  muscle.  Horses  have  been  known 
to  fracture  their  own  bones  by  tlie  power  of  muscular  contraction. 
Furthermore,  a  horse  has  the  appearance  of  being  unbalanced  in 
his  makeup  if  too  fine  in  his  undeq')inning.  Hence  the  demand 
for  heavy  bone  in  draft  horses  is  fully  warranted,  but  should 
be  made  with  a  full  knowledge  of  just  what  it  means.  The 
region  of  the  canon,  usTially  regarded  as  the  index  of  bone,  in- 
cludes, in  addition  to  the  canon  bone  proper  and  the  two  rudi- 


THE  TYPES  OF  HORSES  37 

mentary  splint  bones,  the  flexor  and  extensor  tendons,  the  suspen- 
sory ligament,  a  variable  amount  of  connective  tissue,  and  the 
skin  and  hair.  The  total  circumference  may,  therefore,  be  con- 
siderable and  yet  not  represent  real  bone.  The  bony  structure 
itself  is  made  up  of  inorganic  and  organic  constituents;  the 
former  are  the  more  essential  to  wear  and  determine  the  texture. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  coarse  texture  of  tendons,  ligaments,  and 
bones  tliemselves,  together  with  too  much  connective  tissue,  a 
thick  hide,  and  coarse  hair,  tend  to  increase  size  in  tlie  canon 
region  Avithout  increasing  the  wearing  qualities  of  the  bone.  It 
is  therefore  real,  and  not  apparent,  bone  which  counts,  and  the 
eye  and  hand  are  more  reliable  than  the  tape  line  for  determining 
its  amount.  Furthermore,  the  object  of  ^^  big  bone  "  is  not  to 
insure  against  fracture  of  the  horse's  leg  but  to  furnish  joint 
surface  of  sufficient  area  and  durability  to  insure  the  horse  re- 
maining sound  under  stress  of  the  wear  to  which  it  is  subject  in 
the  course  of  its  work.  The  bone  of  the  canon  region  is,  there- 
fore, but  an  index  after  all. 

8.  Quality,  not  being  correlated  with  substance,  is  more  diffi- 
cult of  attainment  in  a  draft  horse,  but  there  is  an  increasing 
favor  expressed  for  more  refined  heads  and  necks,  general  finish, 
and  better  texture  of  bone,  hoof,  and  hair.  As  much  quality  as 
is  consistent  with  the  required  substance  is  desirable. 

9.  Temperament  of  the  draft  horse  is  generally  lymphatic, 
but  sluggishness  is  discriminated  against.  Wliile  the  nature  of 
his  work  requires  that  the  draft  horse  be  steady,  jiatient,  and 
readily  tractable,  it  is,  nevertheless,  essential  that  it  be  per- 
formed willingly  and  with  some  snap  and  aggressiveness.  Dis- 
position should  be  good  to  offset  frequent  provocation. 

10.  Way  of  going.  Most  drivers,  for  well-regulated  draft 
horse  stables,  are  instructed  to  walk  their  teams  both  when  loaded 
and  light,  and  experience  seems  to  justify  such  action.  In  the 
first  place,  a  draft  horse  must  walk  at  least  one-half  his  time, 
and  if  he  is  never  allowed  to  trot  he  acquires  a  rapid,  snappy 
Avalk  which  will  accomplish  as  many  miles  in  the  course  of  a 
day's  work  as  can  be  done  by  the  horse  which  is  compelled  to  trot 
and  allowed  to  walk  only  for  the  purpose  of  resting.    The  weight 


38 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


of  the  draft  horse  is  so  great  and  the  surface  he  walks  over  so 
hard  that  concussion  is  a  big  factor  in  endurance  and  durability, 
and  concussion  is  increased  immeasurably  at  the  trot.  Condi- 
tions of  traffic  in  most  city  streets  are  such  as  to  make  trotting 
impracticable.  However,  any  draft  horse  should  be  able  to  trot 
well.  The  trot  accentuates  all  features  of  the  walk,  so  that  to  be 
able  to  trot  well  insures  a  good  walk  (Fig.  33). 

The  draft  horse  gait,  then,  is  the  walk,  a  powerful,  prompt, 
swinging  stride  of  as  much  length  as  the  short  legs  will  allow. 


Fig.  33. — The  wav  a  draft  horse  should  be  able  to  move.  A  powerful,  straight,  free 
stride,  hocks  sharplv  flexed,  well  under  and  close  together,  good  knee  action  but  no  rolling 
or  pounding  in  front. 


The  notion  that  a  longer  legged  horse,  with  his  longer  stride,  can 
accomplish  more  is  not  borne  out  in  experience,  except  witli 
mules.  A  leggy  drafter  lacks  coordination  in  his  movements, 
which  counts  against  him  in  the  course  of  the  day,  even  though 
his  single  stride  is  longer.  Furthermore,  correlated  with  his 
leng-th  of  leg  is  a  general  deficiency  in  draftiness. 

There  is  a  tendency  in  massive  draft  horses  to  roll  or  paddle 
in  front  and  go  wide  behind,  on  account  of  their  broad  fronts  and 
thick  thighs.    This  is  objectionable,  if  very  marked,  as  it  results 


THE  TYPES  OF  HORSES 


39 


in  an  unequal  distribution  of  weight  and  work  on  the  joints  and 
foot,  as  well  as  being  unsightly. 
/^;'.  '^ Speed  Type. — Wlien  speed  performance  alone  is  considered, 
the  minimum  weight  to  be  pulled  or  carried  is  imposed.  Speed 
depends  ujjon  the  length  of  the  individual  strides  and  tlie  rapidity 
with  which  they  can  be  repeated.  Muscular  contraction,  there- 
fore, must  be  of  greatest  degi'ee  and  most  quickly  accomplished. 


Fig.  34. — The  speed  type,  representing  the  long,  rangy,  angular,  narrow  but  deep  form 
correlated  with  length  and  rapidity  of  stride. 


Muscles  capable  of  such  contraction  are  long  and  band-like,  com- 
2)ared  to  the  short  and  tliick  muscles  of  power. 

Form. — A  horse  to  be  fast,  at  whatever  gait,  must  have  the 
following  form : 

(1)  ]\[ust  be  long  and  rangy  in  form  to  accommodate  the 
length  of  muscles  and  to  increase  the  length  of  the  reach  in 
extension. 

(2)  Must  be  lithe,  indicating  a  system  of  muscles  of  the 
speed  sort  (Fig.  34:). 


40  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

(3)  Must  be  angular,  not  having  tlie  form  rounded  out  by 
bulky  muscles,  and  carrying  no  excess  weight  in  fat. 

(4)  Must  be  narrow,  to  permit  of  the  greatest  directness  of 
shoulder  motion  and  to  offer  the  least  resistance  to  the  wind. 

(  5  )  Must  be  deep,  to  insure  ample  heart,  lung,  and  digestive 
capacity,  Avhich  it  is  not  possible  to  secure  by  width. 

Quality,  denoting  the  finest  texture  of  structure,  to  insure 
durability,  with  least  weight  and  bulk,  is  necessary  in  a  horse 
that  is  to  attain  great  speed. 

Stamina,  bottom,  and  heartiness  are  most  essential. 

The  temperament  should  be  nervous,  affording  tlie  requisite 
nerve  force  and  courage  to  properly  control  and  sustain  the  per- 
formance of  which  the  sjoeed  horse  is  mechanically  capable. 

Their  way  of  going  serves  as  a  basis  for  further  classification 
into  (1)  trotters  or  pacers,  (2)  iiinners  or  jumpers. 

Trotters  and  pacers  accomplish  what  is  asked  of  them  by 
virtue  of  their  ability  to  extend  themselves  into  a  long,  reachy 
stride  done  rapidly.  They  are  capable  of  the  greatest  length  of 
stride,  on  account  of  the  greater  proportionate  length  of  forearm 
and  lower  thigh  Avhich  they  possess.  Their  muscles  are  corre- 
spondingly long,  narrow,  and  band-like,  with  the  capacity  for 
rapid  contraction  in  an  extreme  degree.  Pacing  is  differen- 
tiated as  a  lateral  instead  of  a  diagonal  gait,  and  usually  goes 
Avith  greater  length  of  limb  in  proportion  to  body,  lower  fore- 
hand, longer,  steeper  croup,  and  more  bent  hocks  than  are  seen 
in  the  trotter.  In  double-gaited  horses  these  differences  may 
not  be  apparent. 

The  runner  attains  speed  by  a  series  of  successive  jumps,  in 
which  the  propulsive  power  of  the  hindquarters  is  most  marked. 
He  is,  therefore,  characterized  by  gi*eater  development  of  fore- 
hand, a  thicker  stifle,  and  a  straighter  hind  leg  with  less  propor- 
tionate length  from  the  hip-joint  to  the  hock  than  characterizes 
the  trotter.  His  characteristic  way  of  standing  easy  on  his  front 
legs  is  shoA\Ti  by  experience  to  have  its  influence  in  reducing  con 
cussion,  in  the  recovery  at  the  end  of  each  jump.  As  a  rule,  speed 
over  the  jumps  is  more  a  matter  of  schooling  and  temperament 
than  of  conformation,  although  there  is  alleged  to  be  a  certain 
straightness  of  top  line,  especially  in  the  region  of  the  loin,  which 


THE  TYPES  OF  HORSES 


41 


is  distinctive  of  the  steeple  chaser.  Then,  too,  tlie  characteristics 
associated  with  a  runner  may  be  somewhat  accentuated  in  a 
steeple  chaser. 

Show  Type. — So  far  as  speed  and  power  are  concerned  the 
show  horse  requirements  are  intermediate.  It  is  the  manner  in 
which  he  moves  and  the  appearance  he  makes  while  going,  rather 
than  the  pace  or  the  weight  of  the  load,  which  count. 

In  order  to  qualify  as  a  show  horse  he  must  possess : 


"1 


yfag 


Fig.  35. — The  show  type,  representing  the  close  and  full  made  form,  the  quality  and 
style  essential  to  look  the  part,  and  the  sort  of  conformation  that  enables  a  horse  to  be 
an  actor. 

Form,  close  and  full  made,  stout  enough  to  pull  a  vehicle 
designed  after  the  English  notion  that  "  to  drive  handsomely  is 
to  drive  heavily,"  smoothly  turned  and  rotund  enough  to  har- 
monize with  the  lines  and  proportions  of  the  vehicle  to  which 
he  is  put,  and  to  look  well  before  it  (Fig.  3.5). 

Substance,  present  in  a  degree  proportioned  to  the  style  and 
weight  of  the  vehicle  concerned. 


42 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


Quality,  general  refinement  and  finish  to  enhance  good  looks. 

Temperwrnent,  active,  stylish,  proud,  bold,  and  courageous. 

The  actor  or  high  going  horse  is  such  structurally  and  tem- 
peramentally. He  must  possess  a  general  suj^pleness  and  flexi- 
bility that  is  found  only  with  length  of  shoulder  and  pastern, 
neck  and  croup.  But  this  is  true  in  equal  degree  of  the  saddle 
horse.  The  actor,  in  addition,  is  close  made  in  profile,  full  made 
from  the  end,  in  order  that  he  mav  hotter  fit  hcavv  leather  and 


.     A  ~ 

f 

4 

^    'I^H^B>^ 

s^J^^^^^M 

^'^■ralL     ^'    WiSk^^  d^l^^^H^^^^H 

nl 

'a^P'T 

,-4»- 

\j^^ 

""""^"'^t^ 

■dliS 

'i 

■Hi 

^ ''  5 '  ^,  .  ^  - 

'.i 

Fig.  36. — A  weight  carrier,  illustrating  the  bone  and  muscular  development   which  with 
short  back  and  legs  render  a  horse  "up  to"  two  hundred  pounds  or  more. 


conform  to  the  heavy  vehicles  to  which  he  is  put.  Furthermore, 
he  must  not  only  possess  joints  of  such  angles  as  to  permit  of 
extreme  flexion,  hut  he  must  he  thoroughly  disposed  so  to  go,  bend- 
ing himself  in  every  joint  from  the  ground  to  the  tip  of  his  chin 
and  to  the  last  segment  of  his  abbreviated  dock.  Height  of  stride 
is  his,  and  he  must  have  the  style  and  finish  to  properly  set  off 
the  shoAv  he  is  to  make. 

Saddle  Type. — The  saddle  horse  must  carry  weight  from  135 
to  200  pounds  or  over,  with  greatest  satisfaction  to  his  rider  and 


THE  TYPES  OF  HORSES 


43 


least  distress  to  himself.  The  prescribed  ways  in  which  the 
weight  is  to  be  carried  differentiate  the  classes  of  saddle  horses. 

Ability  to  support  weight  requires  comparatively  short,  stout 
legs,  acting  as  columns,  and  a  short,  strong,  closely  coupled  back 
and  loin,  constituting  the  arch  (Fig.  3G). 

The  actual  carrying  of  the  weight  is  accomplished  by  tlie 
liorse's  placing  himself  in  such  a  way  as  to  balance  his  load. 


Fig.  37. — The  saddle  type,  showing  the  short  top  and  Ions  under  line,  sloping  shoulders,  the 
high,  well-finished  withers,  and  the  long,  fine,  supple  neck  essential  in  the  saddle  horse. 


going  well  off  his  hocks,  and  working  his  legs  under  him  in  such 
a  way  as  to  sustain  the  weight  at  all  phases  of  the  stride.  There 
is  a  knack  in  carrying  weight ;  the  remarkable  feats  of  the  expe- 
rienced baggage  man  in  the  handling  of  trunks  can  be  accounted 
for  on  the  same  principle.  Size  is  secondary  to  the  way  a  horse 
is  set  up,  and  to  the  way  he  goes. 

A  saddle  horse  must  be  light  in  the  forehand,  possess  a  supple 


44  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

neck,  a  responsive  mouth,  and  a  high  order  of  intelligence  in 
order  to  qualify  for  the  schooling  which  is  required  to  make  a 
finished  mount.  His  form  is  outlined  by  a  short  top  and 
long  under  line,  and  is  characterized  by  the  development  of  the 
forehand.  Shoulders  shoukl  be  unusually  long,  sloping,  and 
extended  into  high,  narrow,  well-finished  withers,  which  have 
the  effect  of  placing  the  saddle  well  back  and  holding  it  in  that 
position,  without  suffering  injury  from  its  impingement  (Fig. 
37).  The  greatly  desired  "long  rein"  and  "much  horse  in 
front  of  the  rider ''  are  thus  secured.  Such  a  forehand  will  be 
comparatively  narrow  and  deep,  thus  permitting  a  secure  and 
comfortable  seat  without  the  spread  of  knees  and  thighs  occa- 
sioned by  the  full-made  harness  horse. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  saddle  horse  stride  are  spring 
and  accuracy,  both  being  most  conducive  to  the  comfort  and 
security  of  the  rider.  All  gaits  but  the  gallop  and  run  are  exe- 
cuted in  a  collected  manner,  with  only  sufficient  action  to  insure 
freedom  of  stride.  A  well-schooled  saddle  horse  should  be 
capable  of  a  most  finished  performance ;  he  should  change  gaits, 
canter  on  either  lead  or  in  a  circle,  back,  traverse,  or  side  step, 
and  be  thoroughly  responsive  to  the  hand,  rein,  and  heel. 

REVIEW 

1.  Whj^  should  a  draft  horse  be  low  set,  broad,  deep,  compact,  and 

massive  ? 

2.  Explain  how  weight  increases  the  power  of  the  city  draft  horse. 

3.  Describe  the  ideal  draft  horse  bone;  of  what  importance  is  it? 

4.  How  should  the  draft  horse  walk  and  why? 

5.  What  is  the  relation  of  speed  to  draft? 

6.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  speed  type  and  why? 

7.  How  may  a  trotter,  a  pacer,  and  a  runner  be  distinguished  without 

seeing  them  go? 

8.  Describe  the  show  type  and  J2:ive  reasons  for  each  feature. 

9.  Account  for  the  fact  that  an  <S00  pound  pony  may  carry  a  200  pound 

man  more  easily  than  a  1200  pound  horse  can. 
10.  Describe  the  forehand  of  a  typical  saddle  horse  and  give  reasons. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE   CLASSES   OF   HORSES 

Basis  of  Class  Distinctions. — The  characters  upon  the  basis 
of  which  class  distinctions  are  made  are  height,  weight,  form, 
quality,  substance,  condition,  temperament,  manners,  and  color. 

Height. — The  stature  at  the  highest  point  of  the  withers, 
measured  in  hands,  four  inches  to  the  hand.  Fractions  of  the 
hand  are  expressed  in  inches,  as  15  hands,  2  inches  or  15-2. 

Weight. — Height  and  weight  combined  determine  scale, 
which  is  synonymous  with  size. 

Form. — That  general  contour  of  outline  which  determines 
whether  a.  horse  is  smoothly  turned  or  angiilar,  massive  or  lithe, 
low  set  or  rangy. 

Quality. — That  which  refers  to  the  texture  and  finish,  as 
determined  by  the  character  of  the  individual  units  of  structure. 
Quality  is  indicated  in  hide  and  hair,  bone  and  general  refine- 
ment. 

Substance. — That  which  refers  to  the  amount  of  the  struct- 
ural material,  as  determined  by  the  number  and  size  of  the  indi- 
vidual units  of  stiiicture. 

Condition. — Not  so  much  the  state  of  health  as  that  which 
comes  as  a  result  of  fitting.  In  the  ordinary  market  horse  it  is 
the  difference  between  being  fat  and  thin,  while  in  the  race 
horse  it  suggests  the  trained,  as  against  the  untrained. 

Temperament. — A  horse  may  be  too  hot  to  Avork  or  too  cold 
for  a  race  horse. 

Manners. — It  has  already  been  stated  that  a  horse's  value  is 
materially  influenced  by  what  he  can  do.  It  is  essential  that  he 
should  do  all,  and  that  as  well  as  he  can.  Manners,  therefore, 
"  count ''  in  the  value  to  users  of  all  horses. 

Color. — Color  has  much  to  do  in  determining  a  horse's  class 
value.  A  good  horse  is  said  never  to  have  a  bad  color,  yet  certain 
colors  are  preferred  or  even  required  in  some  classes  of  horses 
where  other  colors  are  undesirable  or  even  prohibited. 

45 


46 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


Color  is  the  most  conspicuous  feature  by  which  a  horse  can 
be  described  or  identified,  so  that  a  uniform  and  comprehensive 
color  standard  is  important.  Colors  may  be  generally  classed  as 
solid  or  broken,  distinguished  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  white 
spots.  Solid  colors  are  further  differentiated,  as  hard  or  soft. 
A  hard  color  is  one  in  which  the  shade  is  sharply  pronounced, 
while  soft  colors  are  characterized  by  either  a  total  absence  of 
pigment,  as  in  the  case  of  white  horse  with  pink  skin,  or  a 
washed-out  or  faded  shade  of  some  of  the  other  colors. 

Broken  colors  are  either  the  piebald  and  skewbald,  in  wliich 
the  amount  of  white  is  considerable  and  the  distribution  irreg- 
ular; or  marked,  when  the  white  is  limited  in  amount  and 
definitely  restricted  in  its  location. 

Then  there  are  a  number  of  odd  colors  and  markings  which 
do  not  conform  to  tlie  above  distinctions  nor  admit  of  any  but  a 
group  classification. 

Bay — bright,  blood,  mahogany. 

Brown — bay,  seal,  mealy,  black. 

Chestnut  —  golden,    red,    burnt, 
black. 

Black — jet,  sooty. 

Gray — dappled,  steel,  iron,  black, 
flea-bitten. 

Roan — blue,  red,  strawberry. 

White  (pink  skin). 
■|  Mealy  bay. 
[  Washy  chestnut, 
f  Cream. 

1  Mouse. 
Dun — light  or   Isabella,  dark  or 
buckskin  (black  points). 
/  Black  and  white. 
\  Bay,  brown  or  chestnut  and  white. 
VVhite  —  bald   face,   blaze,   strip, 
star,  snip,  splash,  stocking,  sock, 
fetlock,  pastern,  coronet,  heel. 
Black — points,   back  and    leg 

stripes. 
Odd  — ■  tiger    lily    spots,    leprous 
spots,  watch  eye. 

Color  Inheritance. — The  color  of  the  hair  coat  of  horses  is 
one  of  the  comparatively  few  animal  characters  that  have  been 
demonstrated  to  be  Mendelian.  Quite  extensive  stud-book 
studies  and  observations  as  to  how  colors  behave  in  transmission 
have  established  the  fact  that  chestnut  is  recessive  to  all  other 


Classification 
of  the  coat 
color  of 
horses 


Solid 


Broken 


Hard 


Soft 


Odd 


Piebald 
Skewbald 


Marked 
(markings) 


THE  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  47 

colors,  black  is  dominant  to  cliestnnt  and  recessive  to  all  others, 
bay  is  dominant  to  chestnut  and  black  and  recessive  to  roan, 
gray  and  dun  ^  ;  roan  appears  to  be  a  pattern  independent  of  the 
kind  of  pigment  and  dominant  to  all  other  colors.- 

The  standing  of  different  colors  will  depend,  in  the  case  of 
many  of  them,  upon  the  class  of  the  horse  in  question.  In  gen- 
eral the  different  shades  of  hay  may  be  considered  as  the  best  all- 
round  color.     Bay  has  been  referred  to  as  "  everyman's  ''  color. 

Brown  is  also  a  staple  color  like  bay. 

Chestnut,  especially  the  golden  and  red,  is  one  of  the  most 
attractive  colors  and  when  accompanied  by  white  markings,  as 
chestnut  is  quite  liable  to  be,  presents  an  extremely  flashy  appear- 
ance. This  is  one  of  the  most  popular  colors  in  high-class  harness 
and  saddle  horses. 

Black,  while  most  popular  in  fiction,  is  in  fact  not  a  good 
color  for  selling.  It  is  objected  to  chiefly  on  the  ground  that  it 
is  not  often  fast  black  but  fades  and  sunburns  badly  in  hot 
weather;  the  sooty  more  so  than  the  jet  black.  Black  is  also 
objectionable  on  account  of  tlie  flecked  appearance  which  it 
acquires  as  the  horse  is  warmed  up.  'No  matter  how  carefully 
the  coat  is  gi-oomed,  every  hair  that  is  turned  appears  as  a  dirty, 
gray  fleck,  as  soon  as  the  sweat  dries.  Black  harness  horses  are 
commonly  cross-matched  with  grays.  The  chief  specific  demand 
for  black  horses  comes  from  undertakers. 

Gray  is  the  color  most  in  demand  in  the  draft  classes,  al- 
though frequently  discriminated  against  in  horses  of  any  other 
type.  The  preference  for  grays  is  stated,  by  draft  horse  buyers, 
to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  they  experience  less  difliculty  in  match- 
ing up  a  team  of  from  two  to  six  grays  tlian  in  the  case  of  any 
other  color.  This  may  be  accounted  for  to  some  extent  by  the 
fact  that  gray  is  the  predominating  color  in  the  draft  breed  which 
outnumbers  all  other  draft  breeds  combined,  in  this  country.  It 
would  seem  at  first  thought  that  bays  could  be  more  easily 
matched  than  grays.  But  bays  are  most  frequently  marked  with 
white,  which  necessitates  a  matching  of  markings  as  well  as  of 
shade.    Grays,  furthermore,  appear  to  harmonize  better  with  the 

1.  Anderson,  Kentucky  A^ricnltiiral  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  180. 

2.  Wentworth,  Color  Inheritance  in  the  Horse. 


48  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

red,  green,  or  yellow  combinations  in  which  most  commercial 
vehicles  are  finished.  It  is  also  reasonable  to  claim  that  the 
gray  horse  is  less  sensitive  to  heat  tlian  the  horse  of  darker  color, 
since  white  has  the  physical  property  of  reflecting  the  sun's  rays, 
while  black  absorbs  them.  This  fact  is  borne  out  by  one's  ordi- 
nary experience  with  light  and  dark  suits  of  the  same  weight. 
Gray  horses,  outside  the  work  horse  division,  are  generally 
objected  to  on  account  of  the  conspicuousness  of  their  hair  when 
shed ;  the  degree  in  which  they  show  stable  stain,  although  this 
difiiculty  is  largely  overcome  by  the  use  of  peat  moss  bedding; 
and  the  inevitable  disappearance,  with  advancing  age,  of  the 
black  pigment  in  the  hair,  resulting  in  white  color  and  a  predis- 
position to  melanotic  tumors.  On  the  other  hand,  gray  horses 
show  dandruff  and  body  dirt  less  than  most  other  colors.  The 
darker  shades  are  most  preferred,  although  in  the  hunting  field, 
on  the  race  track,  or  even  in  the  show  ring  a  beautifully  dappled 
light  gray  horse  will  invariably  catch  the  eye.  History  has  done 
much  to  offset  the  prejudice  against  gray  horses.  Grays  are  cross 
matched  in  pairs  with  blacks,  chestnuts,  and  browns. 

Roan  of  either  shade  is  becoming  more  popular  or  prevalent 
in  draft  horses,  due  perhaps  to  the  increasing  number  of  Belgian 
grades  which  come  to  market,  roan  being  common  in  that  breed. 
In  harness  and  saddle  horses,  red  roan  especially  is  a  rather 
pleasing  though  not  common  color. 

Piebald  and  skeivhald  are  popular  colors  in  ponies,  and  in 
sporting  fours  and  tandems  where  striking  colors  are  a  feature ; 
also  for  advertising  wagons  and  the  circus,  where  it  is  desirable 
to  have  them  conspicuous.  A  piebald  is  a  black  and  white  com- 
bination, while  any  color  other  than  black,  such  as  bay,  brown, 
or  chestnut,  combined  with  white,  constitutes  a  skewbald. 

Cream,  dun  and  mouse  colors  are  generally  in  disfavor  ex- 
cept for  some  special  purpose,  although  the  buckskin,  a  darker 
shade  of  dun  which  is  distinguished  from  cream  by  black  points, 
has  a  reputation  for  stamina. 

White  markings  are  most  desirable  in  horses  of  the  show 
type,  since  they  enhance  the  brilliancy  of  a  flashy  performance. 
Even  here  they  are  objectionable  in  ladies'  classes. 

BlacJc  points  are,  as  a  rule,  considered  indicative  of  greater 


THE  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


49 


wearing  qualities,  and  it  is  a  fact  that  tlie  blue  horn  of  the  black 
foot  is  more  dense  and  tough  than  the  white.  White  points 
behind  are  less  objectionable  than  in  front.  In  fact  they  are 
generally  considered  to  improve  a  horse's  appearance  as  does 
some  white  in  his  countenance.  Wliite  markings,  wherever 
they  may  be,  should  be  as  s;)Tiimetrical  as  possible  and  sharply 
defined.  Large,  irregular  white  patches  or  splashes  are  ex- 
tremely objectionable. 

Odd  markings  are  imdesirable.  The  leprous  spots  are  the 
small,  more  or  less  regular  areas,  completely  denuded  of  pig- 
ment, that  are  seen  about  the  muzzle,  the  eyes,  and  under  the  tail. 
The  so-called  tiger  spots  are  the  large,  irregular  areas  of  a  pinkish 
or  yellowish  tint,  surrounded  by  a  zone  of  lighter  shade,  which 
resemble  in  appearance  the  spots  on  the  tiger  lily.  They  are 
especially  common  over  the  croup. 

Market  and  Show  Classes. — By  classes  of  horses  is  meant  the 
market  and  show  ring  creations.  The  classes  should  not  be 
confused  with  types,  which  are  mechanical  distinctions. 

Market  and  Show  Classes 


I.  Work 

A, 
B. 

C. 

Drafter 

Logger 
Chunk 

-^^^ 

D. 

Feeder  1                      ~~^— -~-^^ 

Expresser 

___^--'^^ 

J  I.  Heavy 

A. 

Coach 

^^--^'^^ 

Harness 

B. 

Park 

^^\-^^^^. 

/ 

\^               ^^^"^--^ 

Runabout 

in.  Light 
Harness 

A. 
B. 

Roadster 

f Trotter 
Speed \ 

Pacer 

i>< 

Cob 

A. 

/ 
Race  Horse  (Runner)                              / 

B. 

Walk-trot-canter                                 / 

IV.  Saddle 

C 

Gaited                                                 / 

D. 

Hunter                                           / 
Combination                                / 

/ 

E. 

A. 

Under  46  inches  (Shetland) 

/ 

/ 

/ 

V.  Pony 

B. 

11-2  to  14-2 

1 

C, 

Polo  M 

ount 

50 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


The  Work  Horse  Division. — Drafters  have  already  been 
described  as  the  power  type.  Drafters  are  worked  in  single, 
pair,  three-way,  four-,  or  six-horse  hitches.  The  demand  for  the 
highest  class  of  draft  hoi*ses  comes  chiefly  from  city  business 
firms  who  make  the  appearance  of  their  horses  and  wagons 
on  the  streets  a  feature  of  their  advertising  policies  (Figs.  38, 
39,  and  40). 

In  a  consideration  of  draft  form,  height  is  secondary  to 
weight  and  station.  In  the  selection  of  market  draft  geldings, 
however,  height  is  important.     While  the  low  set,  compact  horse 


Fig.  38. — A  trey  or  three-way  hitch  of  drafters  to  truck,  showing  the  scale,  form,  and  con- 
formation of  horses  of  this  class,  also  the  manner  of  hitching. 

is  most  powerful,  such  chunky  fonn  is  not  conducive  to  as  great 
size  as  that  of  more  range  and  higiier  stature.  This  is  especially 
true  of  immature  draft  colts.  There  must  be  considerable 
"  stretch  "  to  them  if  they  are  to  attain  the  required  size  at 
maturity.  An  upstanding  growthy  two-year-old  gives  greater 
promise  than  the  smoothly  turned,  mature  looking  chunk  of 
the  same  age.  Growth  takes  place  first  upward,  then  doAvnward 
and  outward. 

Appearance,  as  well  as  power,  counts  in  the  serv^ice  for  which 
the  highest  class  of  draft  geldings  are  bought,  and  unless  a  horse 
has  stature  he  appears  "  squatty  "  before  the  big  wagons  or 
trucks  to  which  he  is  put. 


THE  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


51 


Loggers  are  up  to  draft  horse  requirements  in  all  but  quality. 
They  are  too  coarse,  unsymmetrical,  low  bred,  or  badly  blemished 
to  satisfy  the  city  demand,  and  are  therefore  relegated  chiefly 
to  the  lumber  camps,  where  hard  work  only  is  required. 


Fig.   ;'i. — A  draft  pair  of  unusual  quality  and  attractive  color. 


Fig.  40 — A  six-horse  draft  team  to  parkor's  van.  fc-h()\Mn<r 

lead,  bwiug,  and  ^\hecl  pair,  albo  coniplotc  apponitincnt'^ 

Chunl's  represent  the  extreme  of  draft  form,  as  their  name 
implies,  but  are  deficient  in  scale,  ranging  in  weight  from  1200 
to  1500  pounds  (Fig.  41).  They  are  handy  work  horses,  taken 
chiefly  for  the  hauling  of  heavy  loads  which  must  be  delivered 
more  rapidly  than  can  be  done  with  draft  horses,  as  in  the  case 


52 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


of  breweries.     The  lower  grade  of  cliunks  meets  the  demand  of 
the  contractors  and  the  farm  trade. 

Exp^essers  are  rapid  draft  horses,  capable  of  working  at  the 
trot.  They  have  enough  of  the  draft  form  to  insure  the  requisite 
size,  substance,  and  power,  at  the  same  time  departing  from  the 
draft  type  in  that  they  are  more  rangy  and  less  massive,  in  order 
that  they  may  be  capable  of  stepjjing  away  at  a  sharp  trot  (Fig. 
42).  They  have  been  referred  to  as  ""  drafters  Avith  coach  horse 
finish "  and  as  ''  coachers  with  draft  horse  substance."  Ex- 
pressers  vary  in  weight  from  1250  to  1500  ])ound8,  and  serve  a 
wide  ranee  of  uses  in  the  numerous  lines  of  deliverv  service. 


Fig.   41. — A  pair  of  chunks  to  truck,  -showing  the  cxtninilx  (lratt\-  form,  bone,  and  rugged- 
ness  typical  of  this  class. 

Feeders  arc  thin  horses  of  any  of  the  above  classes,  the  de- 
mand for  which  comes  from  those  who  make  horses  the  medium 
through  which  to  market  their  corn.  A  feeder,  to  be  profitable, 
must  have  class  and  l)e  deficient  only  in  condition. 

Heavy  Harness  Horse  Division. — There  is  a  suggestiveness 
about  the  term  heavy  harness  which  is  not  generally  compre- 
hended. Harness  horses  are  of  two  classes,  heavy  and  light,  the 
adjective  in  each  case  qualifying  the  harness  and  not  the  horse. 
The  heavy  harness  horse  is  one  of  fashion,  of  English  creation, 
and  it  is  to  English  sentiment  that  he  owes  his  name.  He  con- 
forms to  the  Englishman's  idea  that  "  to  drive  handsomely  one 


THE  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


53 


must  drive  heavily."  Their  vehicles  are  designed  on  lines  of 
dignity  and  elegance,  which  make  them  in  some  cases  almost 
ponderous.  The  harness,  by  which  the  horses  are  put  to  them, 
is  of  necessity  correspondingly  heavy,  characterized  by  weight 
of  leather,  Kay  collars,  metal  mountings,  Liverpool,  elbow, 
or  Buxton  bits,  with  side  or  no  bearing  reins.  The  horse,  to 
complete  this  equipage  and  be  capable  of  both  acting  and  looking 
the  part,  must  be  close  and  full  made  with  extreme  finish,  style, 
and  action — the  show  type. 


I'lG.   42. — An  cxpresser  for  lijiht  delivery  .service,  .shdwinii  I  lie  coiiilniia 
size  and  substance  with  coach  horse  form  and  finish. 


Ill  draft  hort 


Coach  horses  are  big,  substantial,  heavy  harness  horses  with 
enough  size  and  substance  to  pull  a  brougham  or  coach,  yet  suffi- 
ciently refined  to  make  a  good  appearance  (Fig.  43).  They  must 
have  an  elegant,  bold,  commanding  way  of  going  about  an  eight- 
mile  pace,  ^\'itli  manners  that  will  insure  safe  conveyance  through 
city  traffic,  or  standing  in  pose  for  long  periods  of  waiting. 
Coach  horses  are  put  to  the  brougham,  landau,  or,  as  wheelers 
especially,  to  the  brake,  drag,  or  coach,  hitched  singly,  in  pairs, 
or  fours. 

Parh  horses,  as  the  name  implies,  are  for  park  driving,  not 


54  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

for  to^^Ti  work.  They  are  tlie  show  haraess  horses,  only  suffi- 
ciently close  and  full  made  to  have  that  rotundity  of  form  which 
looks  best  in  heavy  leather,  possessing  a  degree  of  refinement 
equaled  only  by  tlie  park  saddle  horse  and  the  most  extravagant 
flexion  of  knees  and  hocks.  They  should  be  capable  of  a  pace 
of  twelve  miles  an  hour,  which  greatly  enhances  the  flashiness 
and  brilliancv  of  their  action.  Park  horses  are  driven  sinerlv, 
in  pairs,  and  fours,  put  to  the  gig,  the  Sayler  wagon,  an  Amer- 
ican four-wheeler  which  has  taken  the  place  of  the  gig  quite 
generally  (Fig.  4-4)  ;  demi  mail,  Stanhope,  spider  or  George 
IV  phaeton  (the  latter  for  ladies'  use),  park  drag  or  victoria. 


Fig.   43. — A  class  rif  roach  horses  to  broiifiham  and  victorias.     Pair  on  the  right  to  hrougham 
show  the  size  and  substance  which  distinguish  the  coach  horse  from  the  park  horse. 

Usually  owners  drive  in  all  Init  the  last  instance.  Park  horses 
are  classified  by  height,  ranging  from  the  pony  limit  of  14-2  to 
15-3  hands. 

Ewmhout  horses  are  defined  Iw  the  name  under  which  they 
are  classed,  that  is,  handy  little  harness  horses  Avith  Avhich  to 
get  about  (Fig.  45).  They  are  small,  not  over  15-1  as  a  rule, 
in  order  to  have  the  requisite  handiness  and  combine  some  of  the 
step  of  the  road  horse  mth  some  of  the  shape  and  action  of  the 
park  horse,  although  extreme  action  is  not  typical  of  this  class. 
Manners  must  be  of  the  best  to  insure  tliem  standing  without 
hitching,  backing  out  of  tight  places,  and  going  anywhere.  Run- 
about horses  are  put  to  the  light  four-wheel  Avagon  designated  by 
the  samp  name. 


THE  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


55 


^^'''   ^^'      "uctiou  which  distinguish  the"park  horse  from  all  other  luiruess  horses. 


I  brilliant 


A    IMMalM,Ut    h 


iii(l\-,  s!iai)cl.\  ,  well-mannered  little  horse,  with  a  fair  degree 
ot  both  puce  and  action. 


Cohs  are  of  a  type  readily  distingiiislied  from  any  of  the 
other  classes  in  the  heavy  harness  division,  although  the  term 
cob  is  loosely  used  in  referring  to  any  docked  horse,  whether  of 


56 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


cobby  build  or  not.  Tlie  typical  cob  does  not  stand  over  15.1, 
is  low  set,  extremely  close  and  full  made,  lias  unusual  bone  and 
muscular  development,  and  a  sbort  but  trappy  Avay  of  going 
(Fig.  46).  He  may  be  briefly  described  as  a  big  little  liorse, 
of  a  rugged  though  not  coarse  appearance.  Cobs  are  used  to 
both  ride  and  drive  and  are  remarkable  weight  carriers. 

Light  Harness  Horse  Division. — Light  harness  horses  are 
as  distinctly  American  in  their  origin  as  the  heavy  harness  are 
English,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  reciprocal  favor  which 
each  is  receiving  in  the  other  country. 


Fig.  46. — A  cob  to  runabout,  a  big,  little  horse  of  extremely  compact  and   rotund  form. 


Since  maximum  speed  requires  miniinum  draft,  American 
road  wagons  are  built  of  such  material  and  in  such  fashion  as 
to  ini])ose  upon  the  horse  the  least  weight  that  is  consistent  with 
the  safe  and  comfortable  conveyance  of  one  or  two  people.  They 
are,  therefore,  in  striking  contrast  to  the  English  carriages  and 
require  harness  correspondingly  light. 

The  light  harness  horse  follows  the  sjx^ed  tyjx?  but  differs 
from  the  running  race  horse  in  being  somewhat  lower  in  the  fore- 
hand, longer  and  more  sloping  in  the  croup,  longer  from  the 
hip-joint  to  the  hock,  witli  the  hocks  set  further  back  and  the 


THE  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


57 


leg  below  the  liock  directed  more  downward  and  forward  (Fig. 

Tnie  pacers,  as  a  rule,  are  longer  in  legs,  lower  in  the  fore- 
hand, with  longer,  steeper  croups  and  more  l>ent  hocks  than  the 
trotter.  The  size  of  the  light  harness  horse  is  too  variable  to 
be  defined  by  any  but  the  widest  limits.  If  horses  of  this  type 
are  of  good  size,  well  made,  stylish,  straight  gaited,  even  though 
not  possessed  of  extreme  speed,  and  have  good  manners,  they 
are  classed  as  gentlemen's  road  horses  (Fig.  48).  On  the  other 
hand,  extremely  fast  horses,  either  at  trot  or  pace,  whether  they 
have  anytliing  else  to  recommend  them  or 
not,  are  classed  as  speed  horses  (Fig.  49). 

Koad  horses  are  hitched  singly  or  in  pairs, 
while  speed  horses  are  seldom  used  to  pole. 
The  road  wagon  is  the  typical  roadster  hitch, 
while  speed  horses  are  hooked  to  bike  sulkies, 
or  speed  wagons,  the  lightest  type  of  vehicle 
built  to  meet  the  amateur  requirements,  which 
call  for  a  four-wheeled  wagon.  Speed  horses 
are  classified  according  to  their  record 
perforiiiaiiccs. 

Saddle  Horse  Division. — The  saddle 
horse  was  priuiai-ily  a  utility  horse,  as  a 
matter  of  necessity,  in  pioneer  times  prior  to 
the  construction  of  roads  and  vehicles,  but 
he  has  become  in  addition  a  most  popular 
source  of  pleasure,  with  circumstances 
attending  his  use  so  diversified  as  to  call  for  a  variety  of  types. 
Some  horses  are  ridden  for  the  ease  with  which  they  carry  one, 
wliile  others  are  used  for  the  exercise  and  liver  stimulation  which 
they  afford.  Then,  again,  some  are  ridden  in  a  dignified  manner 
ill  the  parks  and  on  the  boulevards,  while  others  are  ridden 
"  rougli  "  in  the  field  and  cross  country.  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  first  two,  in  tliis  country,  is  very  largely  one  of  school- 
ing and  trimming,  although  tlie  English  type  of  walk-trot-canter 
saddle  horse  is  quite  distinctive  in  breeding  and  general  make-up. 

The  race  horse  is  the  truest  exjwnent  of  the  speed  type,  but 
is  used  essentially  as  a  saddle  horse^  a  galloper^  and  is  therefore 


Fig.  47.— The  bent 
hock-joint. 


58 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


Fig.  48. — A  gentleman's  road  mare.    Although  of  speed  form,  she  is  ot  good  size,  symmetri- 
cal shaoe.  faultless  conformation,  and  shows  great  refinement,  style,  and  intelligence. 


Fig.  49. — A  trotter  to  sulky,  adhering  strictly  to  the  speed  type  yet  possessing  more  size 
and  substance  and  better  conformation  than  is  common  in  horses  of  this  class. 


THE  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


59 


classed  in  the  saddle  division.  Runners  are  distinguished  from 
trotters  and  pacers  by  greater  development  of  the  forehand,  by 
a  shorter  back,  more  level  cronp,  straighter  hind  legs  (Fig.  50), 
with  less  proportionate  length  from  hip- joint  to  hock  and  more 
from  hock  to  the  ground.  Their  way  of  going  is  also  distinctive ; 
they  have  a  wonderful  reach  and  leng-th  of  jump  at  the  run,  and 
gallop  beautifully,  but  have  a  low,  pointing  stride  at  the  trot 
(Fig.  51).  They  race  on  the  flat,  or  over  the  steeple  chase 
course  of  jumps,  according  to  their  own  natural  aptitude  and 
the  schooling  which  they  have  received.  Running  race  horses 
are  handicapped  by  the  weight  required  to  be 
carried,  an  impost  of  only  an  ounce  making 
a  considerable  difference  in  a  horse's  finish. 

Gaited  saddle  horses  are  the  distinctly 
American  saddle  horses  (Fig.  52),  although 
ambling  saddle  horses  were  at  one  time  used 
in  England,  and  at  present  the  gaited  horse 
is  apparently  losing  favor  in  some  important 
parts  of  this  country  to  the  walk-trot  horse  of 
English  idea,  Gaited  horses  are  required  to 
go  at  least  five  gaits :  the  walk,  either  the  run- 
ning walk,  fox  trot,  or  slow  pace;  the  trot; 
rack;  and  canter;  all  described  under  gaits. 
They  carry  full  mane  and  tail  and  are  the 
ideal  of  the  Southern  and  Western  saddle 
liorse  contingent. 

WalJc-trot-canter    saddle    horses    do    just 
what  is  enumerated  in  the  name,  are  usually 
docked  and  tlieir  manes  pulled  (Fig.  53).     Many  of  our  best 
walk- trot-canter  saddle  horses  are  converted  gaited  horses,  show- 
ing that  there  is  no  distinction  in  type  except  in  their  per- 
fonnance. 

The  collected,  springy,  weight-carrying  trot  of  the  saddle 
horse  should  be  distinguished  from  the  extended,  fast  trot  of  the 
speed  horse  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  high  acting,  sometimes 
pounding,  trot  of  the  heavy  harness  horses  on  the  other. 

Walk-trot-canter  horses  are  referred  to  as  hacks,  and  a  dis- 
tinction is  made  between  park  and  road  hacks.    The  fonnev  have 


Fig.  50. — The  .straight 
hock-joint. 


60 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


the  finish  and  style  characteristic  of  all  park  horses,  and  are 
usually  saddle  bred,  while  road  hacks  are  of  a  somewhat  plainer 
but  more  serviceable  stamp,  capable  of  taking  a  run  cross  country 
in  connection  with  a  road  ride,  if  desired. 

There  is  also  a  tendency  to  differentiate  between  the  Saddle 
bred  walk- trot-canter  saddle  horse  and  the  one  of  Thoroughbred 
breeding  and  type.     The  former  is  characterized  by  high  car- 


FiG.  51. — A  steeple  chaser,  showing  the  speed  type  and  saddle  form  of  the  running  race  horse 


riage  of  head  and  tail,  alleged  to  resemble  that  of  a  peacock, 
more  knee  and  hock  action  and  usually  less  substance — the  latter 
by  a  more  exclusively  saddle  fomi  perhaps,  but  too  often  an 
erratic  disposition  and  a  Ioav  going  trot,  that  are  not  conducive 
to  either  a  safe  or  satisfactory  ride  (Fig.  54).  Some  most  ac- 
ceptable representatives  of  the  latter  type  have  been  brought 
out,  however.  Saddle  horses  are  classified  on  the  basis  of  height 
and  the  weight  to  which  they  are  np. 


THE  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


61 


Hunters  are  ridden  to  fox  hounds,  cross  country,  and,  as  a 
rule,  with  considerable  weight  up.  In  order  to  qualify  they  must, 
in  addition  to  being  able  to  cariy  weight,  stay  for  long,  hard 
runs,  jump  safely,  and  preferably  in  their  stride,  all  common 
obstacles  in  the  field,  such  as  fences,  walls,  and  ditches,  and 
galloj)  fast  enough  to  keep  pace  with  the  pack.     They  must  also 


Fig.  52. — A  gaited  saddle  stallion;  one  of  the  best  representatives  of  this  class,  which  is  the 
most  popular  of  any  in  the  South  and  West  but  has  met  only  limited  favor  in  the  East. 


have  good  heads  in  order  not  to  become  hot  in  company  and  run 
away  through  fences  or  into  quarry  holes. 

In  order  to  meet  these  requirements,  a  horse  must  have  all 
the  features  of  the  weight  carrier  conspicuous  in  his  make-up, 
esi>ecially  strong,  well-developed  shoulders  and  withers,  mus- 
cular quarters,  and  ample  bone  (Fig.  55).  Quality  is  sacrificed 
to  substance,  but  a  hunter  must  show  breeding  and  not  appear 


62 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


cold.  lie  is  not  good  looking  in  the  same  sense  as  the  park 
horse,  but  has,  nevertheless,  a  most  impressive  ai")pearance,  as  a 
horse  of  great  resourcefulness  and  servicoabilitv.  Size  is  being 
more  and  more  insistently  demanded  by  buyers  and  users  of 


Fio.  5S. — A  walk-trot-cantcr  horse,  showing  the  mold  of  form,  the  extreme  refinement 
of  head  and  neck,  the  peacocky  carriage,  the  style  and  intelligence  that  are  representative 
in  highest  degree  of  the  American  idea  of  a  saddle  horse  of  this  class. 


hunters,  and  for  a^Dparently  good  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  a 
five-foot  jump  is  four  inches  lower  for  a  16-hand  horse  than  for 
one  of  15  hands  height.  Many  hunting  folk  are  in  the  sport  to 
keep  do^\m  their  weight,  so  that  it  takes  a  horse  of  some  size 
to  be  up  to  the  weight  at  which  they  ride.     Finally,  the  big 


THE  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


63 


Fig.  54. — A  class  of  English  saddle  horses,  the  Thoroughbred  type  predominating. 


Fig.  55. — A  light-weight  hunter  having  strong,  well-developed,  sloping  shoulders,  high 
withers  extending  well  back,  muscular,  quarters,  ample  bone,  and  suflBcient  breeding  to 
insure  the  requisite  courage,  stamina,  and  pace. 


64 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


horse  is  claimed  to  give  a  safer  ride  on  account  of  the  momentum 
of  his  gi-eater  weight,  insuring  him  a  better  chance  of  breaking 
through  a  fence  in  case  of  a  blunder,  instead  of  being  tripped  by 
it  and  coming  down. 

Hunters  are  classified  accordinc:  to  the  Aveii^rht  thev  are 
capable  of  carrying,  as  light  weight,  up  to  from  135  to  165 
pounds;  middle  weight,  ir)5  to  100  pounds;  and  heavy  weight, 
.190  ])ounds  or  over.     A  heavy  weight  hunter  is  shown  as  '^  a 


Fig.  56. — Heatherbloom,  the  world's  record  high  jumper. 


weight  carrier"  (Fig.  36).  They  are  also  classified  as  green 
or  qualified,  the  latter' having  hunted  one  season  with  a  pack 
recognized  by  the  United  Hunts  and  Steeple  Chase  Association. 
All  hunters  are  jumpers  in  some  degree,  but  a  high  jumper 
is  by  no  means  necessarily  a  hunter.  A  jumper  may  clear  six 
feet  at  one  time,  and  at  another  blunder  over  an  ordinary  post 
and  rail  fence,  while  to  be  a  safe  cross  country  horse  he  must 
be  a  consistent  jumj)er  of  from  4  feet  6  inches  to  5  feet  only. 


THE  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


65 


The  record  high  jump  of  Heatherbloom,  over  7  feet  9  inches, 
in  1903  still  stands  (Fig.  56). 

The  use  of  hunters  is  not  restricted  to  the  hunting  field, 
although  the  number  demanded  for  that  purpose  alone  is  rapidly 
increasing  with  the  extension  of  the  sport.  Horses  of  this  type 
are  preferred  by  many  who  never  ride  to  hounds,  because  they 
are  most  useful  horses  to  ride  and  even  to  drive. 

The  Combination  Horse. — It  is  customary  for  all  saddle 
horses,  even  some  hunters,  to  go  well  in  harness,  but  their  forte, 


Fig. 


'. — A  combination  horse,  departing  somewhat  from  the  saddle  type  in  being  of  a  more 
"harnessy"  form. 


nevertheless,  is  under  "  pigskin."  There  is,  however,  a  combi- 
nation class  of  horses  from  which  an  equally  good  performance, 
either  to  ride  or  to  drive,  is  expected  (Fig.  57). 

Combination  horses,  although  shown  customarily  in  harness 
first,  are  more  especially  saddle  horses  that  drive  well  than  they 
are  harness  horses  capable  of  giving  a  good  ride. 

They  are  distinguished  from  saddle  horses  by  being  some- 
what more  of  a  harness  form  and  showing  more  speed  at  the  trotj 
with  good  manners  when  driven. 


66 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


A  combination  horse  may  go  either  the  three  or  the  five 
gaits  under  saddle,  but  those  which  walk,  tTot,  and  canter  are 
usually  driven  in  heavy  harness,  while  those  which  are  gaited 
are  driven  in  light  harness. 

The  "  fine  haraess  "  horse  of  the  Southern  shows,  distinct 
from  the  "  light  harness  ''  horse  in  that  he  has  no  speed  but  is 
a  "  model "  horse  capable  of  going  ten  or  twelve  miles  an  hour 
in  the  best  fonn,  is  in  reality  a  gaited  saddle  horse  in  harness 
(Fig.  58). 


Fig,  58. — The  fine  harness  horse  of  the  South,  a  model  of  conformation,  quality,  style,  and 

way  of  going. 


The  Pony  Division. — Generally  speaking,  any  horse  under 
14-2  is  a  pony,  but  diminutive  stature  alone  does  not  constitute 
pony  type.  There  is  a  distinct  pony  build  or  form,  characterized 
as  an  exaggeration,  in  miniature,  of  either  the  draft  or  heavy 
harness  types.  An  undersized  light  harness  horse,  for  instance, 
would  be  a  runt,  not  a  pony. 

Ponies  permit  of  classification  into  three  groups :  ( 1 )  Those 
conforming  to  the  Shetland  standard  of  a  46-inch  limit,  (2)  those 
11-2  to  14-2  hands,  and  (3)  the  polo  pony. 


THE  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


67 


^^MiK 

:|B|*;P/  ' 

M^ 

'^jgy— Mmgjgjl^^^g^  >/VV      z^ 

^^HH|P^^«Rr 

^^p 

^^^g^ 

■^m 

mH^.^ 

Fig.  59. — A  harness  pony  under  46  inches  in  height. 


I'iG.  oij. — A  t\v(.lvc-haud  ridu  aud  drivr  pony  of  exceptional  merit. 


68 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


Fig.  61. — A  pair  of  twelve-hand  ponies  properly  turned  out. 


Fio.  62.— A  polo  mount,  fast,  game,  handy, intcll 


THE  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  69 

Ponies  not  exceeding  46  inches  should  be  of  a  miniature 
draft  horse  pattern,  although  a  preference  has  been  shown  in 
American  show  rings  for  one  with  somewhat  more  refinement 
and  action.  These  ponies  are  used  almost  exclusively  for  small 
children  to  ride  and  drive  (Fig.  59). 

Patiies  11-2  and  Not  Exceeding  1J/--2. — These  ponies  are 
pocket  editions  of  the  coach  horse,  as  it  were,  or  little  cobs,  well 
adajDted  to  the  use  of  youths  and  misses  who  may  have  graduated 
from  the  Shetlands  (Figs.  60  and  61). 

Polo  mounts  are  race  horses  or  hunters  on  a  small  scale,  used 
chiefly  to  play  the  game  (Fig.  62),  although  making  very  accept- 
able little  hacks  in  case  they  are  mallet  shy,  or  for  any  other 
reason  are  kept  out  of  the  game.  Cutting  cattle  and  playing 
polo  are  very  similar  so  far  as  the  requirements  of  horses  are 
concerned,  and  the  type  is  practically  identical,  but  as  the  cow 
pony  seldom  gets  to  market,  class  preference  is  given  to  the 
polo  pony.  A  recent  ruling  of  the  Polo  Association  has  in- 
creased the  height  limit  of  polo  mounts  from  14—2  to  15-1. 
They  are  henceforth,  therefore,  to  be  called  polo  mounts  instead 
of  ponies  and  some  show  classifications  have  already  adopted 
tliis  revision. 

REVIEW 

1.  What  is  the  distinction  between  a  type  and  a  class? 

2.  Name  the  hard,  solid  colors  and  give  examples  of  the  influence  of 

color  on  the  market  value  of  hoi-ses. 

3.  Name  the  market  classes  of  horses. 

4.  Describe  a  typical  expresser  and  give  reasons  for  each  feature. 

5.  What  is  a  cob  f 

6.  What  is  required  of  a  roadster  besides  speed? 

7.  Compare  the  perfonnance  of  the  park  horse  with  that  of  a  road 

hoi-se. 

8.  What  are  the  chief  distinctions  between  the  g-aited  and  the  walk- 

trot-canter  saddle  horse? 

9.  How  does  a  hunter  differ  in  appearance  from  a  park  saddle  horse  ? 
10.  Describe  what  should  distinguish  a  pony  beside  diminutive  stature. 


~y^^^^L 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

A  BREED  is  a  group  of  individuals  possessing  distinctive  char- 
acteristics not  common  to  other  members  of  the  same  species, 
these  characteristics  being  sufficiently  well  fixed  to  be  uniformly 
transmitted.  It  is  these  distinctive  features  which  give  to  each 
breed  its  greater  or  less  e<x)nomic  importance.  Curiously  enough, 
there  is  scarcely  a  breed  which  does  not  possess  at  least  one  dis- 
tinctive characteristic,  in  respect  to  which  it  surpasses  all  other 
breeds. 

In  arriving  at  a  fair  conclusion  of  what  constitutes  "  the 
best  breed/'  it  is  necessary  that  conditions  to  be  met  and  char- 
acters required  be  specified,  as  the  same  breed  may  not  be  "  best  " 
for  each  sjiecific  case.  Too  much  importance  should  not  be 
attached  to  the  partisan  favor  in  which  difi^erent  breeds  are  held. 
The  average  buyer  of  market  horses  has  very  little  consideration 
for  the  particular  breeds  which  may  l)e  represented  in  his  pur- 
chases, vet  striking  imifomiitv  of  breed  character  anions  the 
lot  which  he  selects  may  be  manifested.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  characters  represented  in  the  buyer's  standard  or  ideal 
happen  to  be  more  typical  of  one  breed  than  another. 

It  has  been  noted  recently  that  the  accepted  types  of  the 
draft  breeds,  for  instance,  are  approaching  more  closely  a 
common  standard,  as  shown  by  show  ring  awards,  but  the  desir- 
ability of  such  being  tlie  case  is  questionable.  It  is  not  well  to 
lay  too  much  stress  on  the  minor  features  of  breed  type  which 
have  no  utility  value,  but  inasmuch  as  each  breed  has  distinctive 
characteristics,  rendering  representatives  of  that  breed  espe- 
cially well  adapted  to  particular  requirements,  their  distinctive- 
ness should  be  retained.  For  instance,  the  Percheron  breed  has, 
from  its  inception,  been  characterized  by  features  which  could 
not  be  duplicated  in  any  of  the  other  breeds,  and  these  features 
should  not  be  sacrificed  in  favor  of  others  which  are  character- 
istic of  other  breeds, 
70 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  71 

The  inherent  qualities  of  a  breed  have  been  put  there  by  one 
or  more  of  three  general  agencies,  therefore  the  possibilities  in 
what  can  be  gotten  out  of  a  breed  are  as  definitely  determined  as 
is  the  character  of  a  horse's  get  fixed  by  his  ancestry.  The  three 
factors  determining  breed  characteristics  and,  through  them,  the 
economic  importance  of  the  different  breeds  are : 

1.  The  origin  in  blood  which  constitutes  the  hereditaiy  force 
with  which  the  breed  is  endowed. 

2.  The  environment  by  which  these  blood  lines  have  been 
molded. 

3.  The  purpose  for  which  they  have  been  bred,  constituting 
the  ideal  to  which  the  breeders  have  selected. 

The  study  of  the  breeds  should,  therefore,  resolve  itself  into 
a  consideration  of  the  following  essentials : 

1.  Origin:   (a)   In  blood,     (h)   Geographical. 

2.  Development:    (a)  Men.     (h)  Methods. 

3.  History:   (a)  Men.     (h)   Events,     (c)   Dates. 

4.  Characteristics :    Breed  tyj^es. 

5.  Economic  importance. 

Foundation  Stock. — The  origin  in  blood  is  of  greatest  his- 
torical interest,  if  not  the  most  important,  of  the  factors  which 
determine  breed  characters.  The  modern  breeds  have  been  more 
or  less  composite  in  their  origin,  involving,  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  those  breeds  or  stocks  which  had  already  attained  distinc- 
tion on  account  of  merit.  In  some  cases,  the  combination  of 
blood  lines  was  intentional,  but  it  was  more  often  incidental  or 
even  accidental.  These  historic  horses  can  in  turn  be  traced  to  a 
more  limited  gi'oup  of  common  ancestors  and  so  on  until  the 
blood  lines  focus  in  but  a  very  few  basic  stocks. 

DarAvin  believed  all  races  had  descended  from  one  common 
ancestry,  and  attributed  the  extreme  differences  noted  between 
modern  breeds  to  environment.  The  more  commonly  accepted 
theory  has  been  that  all  modem  breeds  trace  tlieir  origin  in 
blood  directly  or  indirectly  to  one  or  all  of  three  primordial 
stocks,  the  Wild  Black  Horse  of  Flanders,  the  Oriental  Horse, 
and  the  native  pony  stock  indigenous  to  E'orthem  Europe  and 
Asia.    The  latter  has  played  a  more  or  less  important  part. 

The  Flemish  horse  w^as  native  to  what  is  now  a  part  of 


72  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

France,  Belgium,  Ilollaiid,  and  Germany.  The  country  was 
generally  low  lying,  and  therefore  conducive  to  a  coarse,  rank, 
luxuriant  gro^\i^h  of  vegetation.  The  horse  developed  thereon 
partook  of  the  same  general  nature.  The  Flanders  horse  was 
characterizeil  hy :  First,  his  huge  size  and  bulk;  second,  his  gen- 
eral coarseness;  third,  his  uniformly  black  color;  fourth,  his 
profusion  of  hair,  sho^ving  in  heavy  mane,  tail,  featlier  and  even 
a  moustache,  and  tufts  on  the  anterior  face  of  knees  and  points 
of  hocks ;  fifth,  his  sluggish,  Ijonphatic  temperament. 

The  Oriental  horse,  native  to  the  desert  regions  of  Xortheni 
Africa  and  later  found  in  Arabia  and  Asia  Minor,  was  charac- 
terized by  extreme  refinement,  beauty  of  form,  grace  of  move- 
ment, speed,  stamina,  spirit,  intelligence,  and  an  active,  nervous 
temperament.  The  so-called  Oriental  Group  was  said  to  consist 
of  the  Barb,  Turk,  and  Arabian. 

Recent  researches  of  Pi'ofessor  J.  Cossar  Ewart,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  and  Professor  William  Ridgeway,  of 
Cambridge,  have  sho\vn  that  the  fountain  source  was  not  reached 
in  either  the  Flemish  horse  or  the  so-called  Oriental  Group. 
Ridgeway  concludes  that  all  horses  can  be  traced  to  one  or  more 
of  three  original  stocks:  the  Libyan  horse  of  Northern  Africa, 
of  which  pure  Barbs  and  Arabs  are  typical :  the  common  horse 
of  Upper  Asia  and  Europe,  represented  by  the  Mongolian  pony, 
and  the  Celtic  pony  of  Xorthwestem  Europe. 

Origin  of  Thoroughhred. — He  traces  the  Thoroughbred, 
through  his  alleged  Barb,  Turk,  and  Arab  ancestors,  to  Libya, 
in  Xorthem  Africa,  Avhere  he  establishes  a  definite  origin,  about 
1000  B.c.^  in  a  horso  charactenzed  by  a  bay  color,  sometimes 
accompanied  by  boily,  leg  and  even  head  stripes,  a  dark  colored 
skin,  white  markings,  as  a  star,  a  blaze,  and  pasterns  or  "  brace- 
lets," a  short,  fine  head,  well-carried  ears,  a  peculiar  depression 
in  the  skull  just  in  front  of  the  orbits,  a  light,  fine,  high-set  tail, 
the  total  absence  of  chestnuts  on  the  hind  legs,  and  either  ab- 
sence or  small  size  of  the  ergots  at  the  fetlocks,  an  unusually 
long  hoof,  extremely  docile  disposition,  a  refined,  expressive 
voice,  and  great  speed. 

Origin  of  Other  Horses. — Ridgeway  also  establishes  a  small, 
coarse,  thick  set,  short  necked,  plain  headed,  big  boned,  light 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  73 

colored,  slow  but  hardy  pony  of  Upper  Asia  and  Europe  as  the 
original  progenitor  of  all  other  horses,  except  those  which  have 
resulted  from  a  blending  of  these  two,  and  the  Black  Flanders 
horse  is  shown  to  have  such  an  origin. 

In  1902  Professor  Ewart  described  what  he  called  a  "  Celtic 
pony,"  a  true  pony  and  not  a  dwarf  horse.  It  has  a  small  head, 
with  prominent  eyes,  small  ears,  a  heavy  mane,  slender  legs, 
small  joints,  well-fonned,  small  hoofs,  and  ''  tail  lock." 

ARABIAN 

'No  race  of  horses  has  enjoyed  a  more  sentimental  popularity 
nor  had  its  history  more  obscured  by  myth  and  tradition  than 
the  Arab  (Fig.  03).  It  is  only  comparatively  recently  that  any 
very  definite  information  concerning  them  has  been  available. 
Arabs  have  been  considered  in  a  general  way  as  the  original 
source  of  the  best  blood,  but  this  is  not  the  case.  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  horses  similar  to  the  best  Arabs  were  in 
Northern  Africa  more  than  one  thousand  years  before  horses 
were  known  in  Arabia.  Their  introduction  was  apparently  from 
Africa  and  took  place  some  time  between  the  first  and  the  sixth 
century. 

The  number  of  good  horses  in  Arabia  is  much  smaller  than 
is  generally  supposed,  and  these  are  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  cer- 
tain families  or  tribes  in  the  interior  desert.  The  rank  and  file 
of  the  horses  in  the  hands  of  the  common  people  are  either  the 
common  bred  Kurdish  ponies,  descendants  of  the  original  Euro- 
pean stock  or  the  produce  of  these  by  true  Arab  sires.  The  Arab 
])roper,  a  descendant  and  not  an  antecedent  of  the  original 
Libyan  horse,  is  kno^^m  as  the  Kohl  breed,  so  named  on  account 
of  the  peculiar  blue  black  or  antimony  tint  which  characterizes 
the  skin  of  the  body.  The  breed  is  composed  of  five  strains 
which,  in  turn,  are  believed  by  the  Bedouins  to  be  derived  from 
a  single  mare,  named  Kelie'det  Ajtiz,  and  the  most  prominent 
strain  is  named  Keheilan,  after  her.  They  are  mostly  bays, 
the  fastest  of  any,  and  resemble  most  closely  the  English 
Thoroughbred.  The  Darley  Arnhian,  the  greatest  foundation 
sire  of  the  Thoroughbred,  was  of  this  strain.     The  others  are 


74 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


the  Seglawi,  "  powerful  and  fast,  but  not  particularly  hand- 
some"; the  Abeyan,  generally  the  handsomest  but  small,  and 
resembles  the  Thoroughbred  least ;  the  Hamdaini;  and  the  Had- 
han.  Collectively,  the  strains  are  termed  Al  Khamseli  and  are 
extensively  interbred. 

There  is  much  confusion  in  this  country  concerning  the  char- 
acteristic color  of  the  Arab.  Almost  any  odd  color  or  marking, 
such  as  pure  white,  piebald,  skewbald,  leprous  or  tiger  spots,  are 
attributed  to  Arab  blood.  On  the  other  hand,  such  significance 
of  aiiy  of  these  coloi*s  has  been  absolutely  denied.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  bay  with  w^hite  markings  is  most  characteristic,  and,  in  the 


Fig.  63. — Arabian  stallion,  showing  the  general  refinement  characteristic  of  this  breed. 


light  of  recent  kn*Avle<lge  concerning  the  origin  of  the  Arab  in 
the  Libyan  horse,  is  most  desirable.  Grays  are  also  common, 
chestnuts  and  browns  are  not  uncommon,  wliile  blacks  and  even 
pure  whites  are  found.  It  is  true,  too,  that  the  whites  usually 
show  the  Kohl  spots  about  the  eyes,  muzzle,  and  elsewhere. 
AMiile  the  odd  colors  referred  to  as  suggesting  Arab  breeding  are 
never  found  among  pure  bred  Arabs,  tliey  are  noted  among  their 
half  breeds,  the  piebalds  and  skewbalds,  especially,  occurring 
with  a  considerable  degree  of  uniformity  when  the  common  stock 
of  Upper  Asia  and  Europe  is  crossed  with  Arab  sires.  This  is 
shown  in  the  piebald  ponies  of  Thibet,  Sumatra,  Iceland,  the 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  75 

Faroe  Islands,  Java,  India,  and  in  our  original  American  range 
ponies,  which  were  not  many  generations  removed  from  an 
Oriental  foundation.  The  line  back  is  another  'feature  which  is 
marked  in  the  various  shades  of  dun,  cream,  and  mouse  color  of 
half-bred  Arabians. 

THE   BARB 

There  are  many  horses  in  the  Barbary  States  of  Korthem 
Africa  which  are  not  true  Barbs.  Pure  bred  Barbs  are  found 
only  in  Morocco,  where  there  has  been  no  introduction  of  foreign 
blood,  as  has  been  done  in  the  otlier  States,  where  horses  from 
Prance  and  England,  in  Algiers  especially,  Arabs  from  Syria, 
and  the  common-bred  Italian  horses  have  been  crossed  with  the 
native  Barbs.  It  is,  of  course,  assumed  that  the  pure  Barb  is 
the  direct  descendant  of  the  original  Libyan  horse. 

Description. — The  Barb  is  described  as  being  from  14  to  15 
hands  in  height,  body  comparatively  short  .in  proportion  to 
length  of  leg^,  his  whole  form  being  conducive  to  speed.  The 
head  is  well  proportioned,  with  a  fine  ear,  broad,  full  forehead, 
large,  clear,  prominent  eye  flashing  fire  and  yet  expressing  in- 
telligence, a  deep  jowl  with  open  angles,  a  trim  muzzle,  and  a 
nostril  that  is  tliin  at  the  margin,  capable  of  great  dilation  and 
continually  in  play.  The  head  is  well  set  on  a  long,  high  crested 
neck,  well  cut  out  in  the  throttle,  and  giving  the  head  a  lofty 
carriage;  shoulders  well  laid  in  and  sloping,  well  set  up  at  the 
withers;  a  round,  deep  rib;  a  somewhat  drooping  croup  but 
high-set  tail ;  straight  hind  legs,  long  pasterns,  and  rather  deep, 
narrow  feet  of  the  most  superior  texture  of  horn.  The  charac- 
teristic bay  with  white  markings  indicates  the  pure  Barb,  an 
out-cross  introducing  browns,  chestnuts,  blacks,  and  grays. 

THE  TURK 

The  significance  of  this  name  applies,  generally,  to  the  horses 
of  Turkey  in  Asia,  there  being  but  few  horses  in  European 
Turkey.  Originally,  these  consisted  of  Turcoman  and  Kurdis- 
tan ponies,  representatives  of  the  common  Northern  Asia  and 
European  stock.  These  were  later,  however,  extensively  inter- 
bred and  improved  with  Arabs,  so  that  it  is  probable  that  the 


76  TiTES  AXD  BREEDS 

Turks  referred  to  in  Thoroughbred  history  were  of  this 
breeding. 

Tlie  influence  of  the  so-called  Onental  blood  has  been  well 
extended.  The  Darley  Arabian,  Bverly  Turk,  and  Godolphin 
Barb,  w^th  the  Barb  or  Boyal  mare?,  are  considered  the  real 
foundation  of  the  Thoroughbred. 

The  Percheron  owes  much  to  the  Oriental  sire-  with  which 
the  native  French  mares  were  mated.  Gallipoli  and  Godolpliin 
were  two  of  the  most  important  of  these  sires. 

The  Xorfolk  trotter  was  the  result  of  mating  Barbs  with 
the  black  trotters  of  Friesland.  The  Cleveland  Bay  represents 
a  Barb- Yorkshire  cart  horse  cross. 

Bars  I,  progenitor  of  the  Russian  Orloff,  was  three  genera- 
tions removed  from  Smetanxa,  a  gray  Arabian  imfx>rted  into 
Russia.  The  Prussian  Trakehner  is  derived  from  an  admixture 
of  Oriental  and  Thoroughbred  blood  with  the  native  stock  of  the 
country. 

In  America,  imported  Grand  Bashaw,  a  Barb*  brought  from 
Tripoli,  founded  through  his  immediate  descendants  the  Clay, 
Patchen  and  Bashaw  families.  Leopard,  an  Arab,  and  Linden 
Tree,  a  Barb,  presented  to  General  Grant,  were  used  by  Ran- 
dolph Huntingdon  in  his  creation  of  the  Clay  Arabian.  Zil- 
caadi,  an  Arab  from  Turkey,  sired  the  darn  of  GobMust,  the 
founder  of  the  Morgan  family  of  that  name. 

THE    THOEOUGHBRED 

Thoroughbred  is  the  proper  name  of  the  Englisli  runnincf  race 
horse  breed,  and  any  other  application  of  the  tenn  to  horses  is 
incorrect.  It  should  not  be  confused  nor  used  synonymously 
with  "  pure  bred,"  the  adjective  employed  to  denote  the  absence 
of  any  alien  blood  in  the  ancestry. 

It  is  not  probable,  in  view  of  what  we  know  of  the  history  of 
horses  in  Great  Britain,  that  the  origin  of  the  Thoroughbred  was 
of  Oriental  blood  exclusively,  although  their  lineage  has  Ix^en 
carefully  guarded  for  so  long  that  all  trace  of  the  common  stock 
of  the  country,  if  any  ever  existed,  has  long  since  been  bred  out, 
and  they  are  therefore  truly  "  thoroughbred." 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  77 

The  principal  foundation  to  which  the  Thoroughbred  traces 
consists  of  the  Barb  or  Royal  mares,  imported  by  Charles  Second 
(1660  to  1685),  and  the  Darley  Arabian,  a  pure  Anazah,  im- 
ported in  1706;  the  Byerly  Turk,  imported  in  1689,  and  Godol- 
phin  Barb,  brought  from  Paris  in  1724.  The  latter  had  been 
Avorking'  in  a  water  cart,  a  discard,  no  doubt,  from  the  stable  of 
some  mend)er  of  the  nobility  to  Avhoni  he  had  been  presented,  as 
was  commonly  the  custom. 

There  are  prominent  families  in  the  Thoroughbred  and 
derived  breeds  wliich  can  be  traced  direct  to  each  of  these  sires. 
Eclipse,  tlie  most  conspicuous  individual  in  the  history  of  the 
English  turf;  Blaze,  the  foundation  Hackney  sire,  and  Messen- 
ger, tlie  progenitor  of  the  American  Standardbred,  were  respec- 
tively four,  three  and  six  generations  removed  from  the  Darley 
Arabian.  King  Ito<-)d,  a  great  race  horse,  Avas  a  line  descendant 
of  the  ByerlAT'urlvpTnuU^tiltclieni,  a  noted  race  horse  and  sire, 
was  a  grandson  of  Godolphin  Ba?b: — it  has  been  stated  that  the 
American  bred  Thoroughbreds  are,  as  a  rule,  closer  to  their 
Oriental  ancestry  than  the  English  Thoroughbreds  and  that  they 
follow  their  type  more  closely. 

Early  Racing. — While  the  real  era  of  Thoroughbred  breed- 
ing is  usually  considered  to  have  begun  with  the  importation  by 
Charles  Second,  horse  racing  of  a  primitive  character  was  re- 
ported in  the  latter  half  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  first  real 
race  Avas  run  in  1377,  between  Bichard  Second  and  the  Earl  of 
Arundel.  Heni-y  the  Eighth  Avas  the  first  king  to  maintain  a 
racing  stable  of  his  OAvn,  and  the  English  sovereigns  since  that 
time  have  been  enthusiastic  patrons  of  the  turf. 

Through  these  centuries  of  breeding  the  uiost  ligid  selection 
has  been  practised,  turf  performance  alone  being  the  standard. 
Customs  of  conducting  races  and  the  types  of  horses  that  could 
Avin  have  undergone  considerable  modification  Avithin  recent 
generations,  hoAvever.  Prior  to  1880  it  was  customary  to  run 
four  mile  heats  and  carry  top  AA^eight,  A\'hile  the  present  system 
is  to  sprint  short  distances  under  close  handicaps,  starting  as 
two-year-olds  and  campaigning  for  entire  seasons. 

Thoroughhreds  were  introduced  into  this  countiy  by  the 
English  colonists  in  Old  Dominion,  and  the  Thoroughbred  sen- 


78 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


timent  is  still  strongest  there,  especially  in  Virginia.  The  first 
Thoroughbred  of  not©  to  be  imported  was  Diomed,  the  winner  of 
the  first  English  Derby,  the  classic  race  in  England.  He  was 
brought  over  in  1797.  In  a  straight  line  of  descent  from  Diomed 
came  Sir  Archy,  the  first  truly  American  Thoroughbred ;  Boston 
his  grandson,  conceded  to  have  been  the  greatest  American  race 
horse,  and  liis  son  Lexington,  a  scarcely  less  remarkable  per- 
former than  Boston  and  a  most  influential  sire,  figuring  in 
American  Standardbred  and  Saddle  families  as  well  as  in  the 
Thoroughbred. 


Fig.  64. — A  Thoroughbred  stallion,  the  sire  of  race  horses. 

Descnption. — The  Thoroughbred  represents  the  speed  type 
in  the  extreme,  and,  having  been  the  first  breed  improved,  their 
distinctive  characters  are  well  marked  (Fig.  64).  Most  char- 
acteristic are  the  extreme  refinement;  the  small,  well  propor- 
tioned head;  clearly  defined  features;  straight  face  line;  neat 
ear;  fine  throttle;  sloping  shoulders;  well-made  ^vithers,  miis- 
cular  thighs  and  quarters ;  straight  hind  legs ;  usually  slightly- 
bucked  knees ;  oblique  pasterns ;  and  a  rather  small  foot  of  dense 
horn.  Their  way  of  going  is  especially  characterized  by  being 
low  and  pointing  at  the  walk  and  trot,  but  perfection  at  the 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  79 

gallop  or  run.  Their  temperament  is  naturally  racy,  of  sucli  a 
highly  nervous  organization  as  to  cause  them  to  become  "  hot " 
and  erratic. 

Bay  and  chestnut  with  more  or  less  white  markings  are  the 
common  colors,  although  black,  gray,  and  white  were  frequent 
among  the  early  Thoroughbreds.  Typical  Thoroughbred  weight 
is  about  1000  pounds,  and  they  stand  from  15  to  16  hands  high. 
Sir  Walter  Gilbey  estimates  an  average  increase  of  1  hand  2^2 
inches  from  1700  to  1900,  15-2%  being  the  average  at  the 
present  time. 

Relation  to  Other  Breeds. — This  breed  is  of  the  greatest  his- 
toric importance.  It  was  the  first  breed  improved,  and  barring 
the  Oriental  from  which  it  is  derived  it  has  the  purest  blood 
lines.  For  it  the  first  studbook  was  established.  Having  been 
the  first  breed  improved,  the  blood  of  the  Thoroughbred  has  been 
most  freely  used  in  the  improvement  of  other  breeds  and  types. 
In  all  but  tlie  draft  breeds  the  influence  of  the  Thoroughbred  may 
be  demonstrated.  In  the  heavy  harness  division  the  foundation 
blood  lines  are  significant.  The._IIai2kney  descends  from  Shales, 
the  son  of  Blaze,  a  Thoroughbred,  out  of  a  common  mare  of 
Norfolk.  The  French  denv^.juMui  refers  to  the  cross  of  the 
Thoroughbred  on  French  mares.  Thoroughbreds  are  used  ex- 
tensively in  Gennan  studs,  the  Prussian  Trakehner  being  pro- 
duced from  botliTlioroughbred  and  Oriental  sires.  The^York- 
shire^Qjc^ch  horse  represents  a  Thoroughbred-Cleveland  Bay 
cross.  The  three  most  important  foundation  sires  of  American 
horses.  Messenger.  Justin  Morgan,  and  Denmark,  are  credited 
with  Thoroughbred  pedigrees.  In  addition,  the  majority  of 
hunters  and  polo  ponies,  as  well  as  a  great  many  saddle  horses, 
are  clean  or  part  bred. 

The  greatest  value  of  the  Thoroughbred  as  foundation  stock 
has  no  doubt  passed,  as  the  breeds  which  have  been  evolved  from 
a  Thoroughbred  foundation  have  been  improved  along  their 
respective  lines  to  a  point  where  an  out-cross  to  the  Thorough- 
bred might  be  a  step  backward,  although  Thoroughbred  ancestors 
are  mthin  a  very  few  generations  of  some  of  the  most  noted  and 
successful  Hackney,  French  Coach,  Saddle  and  even  Standard- 
bred  sires. 


80 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


There  is  a  strong  prejudice  against  the  Thoroughbred  in 
some  parts  of  this  country,  where  he  is  looked  upon  merely  as  a 
racing  machine^  But  any  one  familiar  with  the  stamp  of  horse 
bred  in  Virginia,  for  instance,  Avill  recognize  in  the  blood  of  the 
Tlioroughbred  a  breeding  leaven,  which  judiciously  and  intelli- 
gently used  produces  most  desirable  results. 

When  breeders  of  the  Thoroughbred  practice  selection  to 
saddle  rather  than  to  race  horse  requirements,  with  good  dispo- 


d  luintfrs. 


sition,  size,  shape,  and  substance  as  the  features  sought,  this 
breed  will  not  be  so  exclusively  dependent  on  the  status  of  the 
racing  game  for  patronage. 

"  Blood  "  is  a  term  frequently  used  to  indicate  Thoroughbred 
breeding;  "  of  the  blood,"  "  blood  like,"  and  "  blood  horse,"  all 
refer  to  the  Thoroughbred.  This  being  the  blood  and  this  breed 
being  altogether  of  it,  horses  cariying  but  a  fractional  percentage 
are  designated  as  part  bred  and  the  number  of  parts  are  specified 
as  two,  or  half  bred,  in  the  case  of  the  get  of  a  Thoroughbred 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


81 


sire,  out  of  a  common  bred  mare;  three  parts  or  three-quarters 
being  used  to  designate  the  get  of  a  Thoroughbred  out  of  a  half 
bred  mare.  The  blood  is  accounted  for  in  this  way  even  up  to 
seven-eighths. 

Record  of  Best  Performances  on  the  Running  Turf. 


Distance. 


M  niile 

%  mile 

3>2  furlongs. 
y^  mile .  .  .  .  . 

41^  furlongs. 

5^  mile 

5H  furlongs. 

♦Futuritj'  c. . 

6  furlongs.  .  . 

614  furlongs. 

7  furlongs.  .  . 
lli  furlongs. 

1  mile 


1  m.   20  yds. 

1  m.  40  yds. 

1  m.  50  yds. 
1  ni.  70  yds. 
1  m.lOO  yds. 

1  l-16miles. 

1%  miles. 
1   3-16  miles 


miles, 


1  5-16  miles 
1  m.  500  yds 

1% 
IM 


V/s 
2 
2  1- 

2% 
2H 

2% 

3 


miles, 
miles, 
miles, 
miles, 
miles, 
miles. 
16  miles, 
miles, 
miles, 
miles . 
miies . 
miles . 
miles. 

miles. 


Name,  Age,  and  Weight. 


Bob  Wade,  4 

Atoka,  aged,  103  lbs 

Colisse,  2,  123  lbs 

Geraldine,  4,  122  lbs 

j  Preceptor,  2,  112  lbs 

t  Joe  Morris,  2,  103  lbs 

Maid  Marian,  4,  111  lbs 

f  Plater,  2,  107  lbs 

t  Fern  L.,  3,  92  lbs 

Kingston,  aged,  139  lbs 

(  Artful,  2,  130  lbs 

(  Prince  Ahmed,  5,  117  lbs..  .  . 

f  Priscillian,  5,  113  lbs 

<  Lady  Vera,  2,  90  lbs 

(  Brookdale  Nymph,  4,  124  lbs. 

f  Roseben,  5,  126  lbs 

\  Colin,  2,  122  lbs 

Restigouche,  3,  107  lbs 

r  Salvator,  4,  110  Ibsf 

Kildecr,  4,  91  lbs 

!  Kiamesha,  3,  104  lbs 

Dick  Welles,  3,  112  lbs 

Fern  L.,  3,  80  lbs 

Bourbon  Beau,  3,  112  lbs..  .  . 

(  Macy,  4,  107  lbs 

J  Maid  Marian,  4,  106  lbs.  .  .  . 

(  Six  Shooter,  5,  111  lbs 

f  Preen,  4,  104  lbs 

\  Main  Chance,  3,  114  lbs.  .  .  . 

Vox  Populi,  4,  104  lbs 

Bubbling  Water,  4,  121  lbs 

Rapid  Water,  6,  114  lbs 

f  Roval  Tourist,  3,  104  lbs..  .  . 
-j  Green  Seal,  4,  109  lbs 

I  Gretna  Green,  5,  100  Ibn.  .  .  . 

f  Charles  Edward,  3,  126  lbs.  . 

1  Green  Seal,  4,  107  lbs 

Scintillant  II.,  G,  109  lbs 

f  Broomstick,  3,  104  lbs 

1  Olambala,  4,  122  lbs 

Ballot,  4,  126  lbs 

Swift  Wing,  5,  100  lbs 

Irish  Lad,  4,  125  lbs 

Goodrich,  3,  102  lbs 

Fitz  Herbert,  3,  122  lbs 

Major  Daingerfield,  4,  120  lbs.  . 

Orcagna,  4,  96  lbs 

Everett,  4,  107  lbs 

War  Whoop,  4,  96  lbs 

Joe  Murphv,  4,  99  lbs 

Ethelbert,  4,  124  lbs 

Kyrat,  3,  88  lbs 

Ten  Broeck,  4,  104  lbs 

Hubbard,  4,  107  lbs 

Mamie  Algol,  5,  108  lbs 

f  Lucrezia  Borgia,  4,  85  Ibs.f. . 

(  Messenger  Boy,  5,  106  lbs. .  . 


Place. 


Butte,  Mont 

Butte,  Mont 

Juarez,  Mexico 

Morris  Park  (st.  c.).  . 
Belmont  Park  (st.  c.) . 
Louisville  (C. Downs). 
Morris  Park  (st.  c.) .  . 
Morris  Park  (st.  c.) .  . 

Seattle,  Wash'n 

Sheeps'd  B.(C.I.J.C.) 
Morris  Park  (st.  c.) .  . 
Empire  City,  N.  Y. . . 

Hamilton,  Ont 

Belm't  P.,  L.  I.  (st.  c.) 
Belmont  Park,  L.  I..  . 
Belmont  Park,  L.  I..  . 
Belm't  P.,  L.  I.  (st.  c.) 
Belmont  Park,  L.  I..  . 
Monmouth  P.  (st.  c.) 
Monmouth  P.  (st.  c.) 
Belmont  Park,  L.  I..  . 
Chicago  (Harlem) .... 

Seattle,  Wash'n 

Juarez,  Mexico 

Chicago  (Wash.  Park) 
Chicago  (Wash.  Park) 
Chicago  (Wash.  Park) 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Seattle,  Wash'n 

Oakland,  Cal 

Oakland  (Cal.  J.  C.).. 

Oakland.  Cal 

Seattle,  Wa.sh'n. .  .  .  .  . 

Fort  Erie,  Ont 

Brighton  Beach 

Seattle,  Wash'n 

Chicago  (Harlem). .  .  . 

Brighton  Beach 

Sheep.sh'd  Bay  (C.I.) 
Sheepsh'd  Bay    (C.I.) 

Latonia,  Kv 

Sheepsh'd  Bay  (C.I.) 
Chicago  (Wash.  Park) 
Sheepsh'd  Bay  (C.I.) 
Morris  Park,  N.  Y.  .  . 

Oakland,  Cal 

Pimlico,  Md 

Ontario  (Tor'to  J.  C). 
Chicago  (Harlem). .  .  . 
Brighton  Beach,  N.Y. 

Newport,  Ky 

Lexington,  Ky 

Saratoga,  N.  Y 

New  Orleans  (CitvP.) 
Oakland  (Cal.  J.  C.).. 
Louisville,  Ky 


Date. 


Aug.  20, 
Sept.  7, 
Jan.  17, 
Aug.  30, 
May  19, 
May  8, 
Oct.  9, 
Oct.  21, 
Aug.  8, 
June  22, 
Oct.  15, 
July  29, 
June  19, 
Oct.  19, 
Oct.  14, 
Oct.  16, 
Oct.  16, 
May  29, 
Aug.  28, 
Aug.  13. 
Oct.  9. 
Aug.  14, 
Aug.  15, 
Feb.  14, 
July  2, 
Julv  19, 
June  27, 
June  16, 
June  29, 
Sept.  5, 
Nov.  30, 
Nov.  30, 
Nov.  11, 
Sept.  12. 
Aug.  28, 
July  16, 
Aug.  20, 
Sept.  1. 
July  9, 
July  2, 
July  1, 
July  8, 
June  25, 
July  16, 
July  13, 
Oct.  3, 
Mar.  2, 
Oct.  31, 
Sept  23, 
Aug.  30, 
Aug.  4, 
Nov.  18. 
Sept.  16. 
Aug.  9. 
Feb.  16, 
May  20, 
Oct.  7, 


1890. 
1906. 
1911. 
1889. 
1908. 
1909. 
1894. 
1902. 
1908. 
1891. 
1904. 
1909. 
1911. 
1906. 
1907. 
1906. 
1907. 
1908. 
1890. 
1892. 
1905. 
1903. 
1908. 
1912. 
1898. 
1903. 
1903. 
IfiOG. 
1907. 
1908. 
1910. 
1907. 
1908. 
1908. 
1909. 
1907. 
1908. 
1902. 
1904. 
1910. 
1908. 
1905. 
1904. 
1898. 
1909. 
1903. 
1909. 
1910. 
1905. 
1894. 
1900. 
1899. 
1876. 
1873. 
1907. 
1897. 
1911. 


.39  2-5 

46 
.51 
.52  4-5 

56% 

02>^ 
.05 
.08 
.08 
1 

11 

1.16  3-5 

1.17  2-5 
1.22 
1.23 
1.311-5 
1.35^ 
1.37M 
1.37  2-5 
1.37  2-5 
1.37  2-5 
1.37  2-5 
1.40 
1.40 
1.40 
1.42 
1.42 
1.40  4-5 

1.42  1-5 
1.44  1-5 
1.44  1-5 
1.44  2-5 

1.43  3-5 
1.50  3-5 
1.50  3-5 
1.57  2-5 
2.02  4-5 
2.02  4-5 
2.09  3-5 
2.101-5 
2.17  3-5 
2.30>i 
2.45 
2.57 
3.17  3-5 
3.25  3-5 
3.34J^ 
3.42 
3.49  1-5 
4.241^ 
4.58H 
4.58^ 
5.19 
7.11 
7.14  1-5 


*170  feet  less  than  %  mile. 

6 


t  Races  against  time. 


St.  c,  straight  course. 


82 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 
Heat  Races. 


DiST. 


Name,  Age,  and  Weight. 


li  mile. 
%   mile. 

J^  mile. 

%  mile. 

%  mile. 

1  mile. 
1  (3  in  5) 

1  1-16  m. 
1%  miles. 
IJ^  miles. 
13^  miles. 

2  miles. 

3  miles. 

4  miles. 


Sleepy  Dick,  aged 

Bob  Wade,  4 

(  Eclipse,  Jr.,  4 

-^  Bogus,  aged,  113  lbs.  .  .  .  , 

I  Bill  Howard,  5,  122  lbs.. 

f  Kittie  Pease,  4,  82  lbs. . . 

\  Fox,  4,  113  lbs 

J  Tom  Hayes,  4,  107  lbs.  .  , 

(  Lizzie  S.,  5,  118  lbs 

Guido,  4,  117  lbs 

L' Argentine,  5,  115  lbs.  .  .  .  , 

Slipalong,  5,  115  lbs , 

What-er-Lou,  5.119  lbs 

Glenmore,  5,  114  lbs 

Patsy  Duffy,  aged,  11 5  lbs.. 
Miss  Woodford,  4,  107H  lbs 

Norfolk.  4,  100  lbs 

Glenmore,  4,  108  lbs 


Place. 


Kiowa,  Kan 

Butte,  Mont 

Dallas,  Tex 

Helena,  Mont 

Anaconda,  Mont.  .  . 

Dallas,  Tex 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Morris  Park  (st.  c.) . 

Louisville 

Chicago  (Wash.Pk.) 

St.' Louis 

Chicago  (Wash.Pk.) 
San  Fran.(Ingleside) 
Sheepshead  Bay. .  .  . 
Sacramento,  Cal.  .  . 
Sheepshead  Baj'..  .  . 
Sacramento.  Cal.  .  . 
Baltimore,  Pimlico.. 


Date. 


Time. 


Oct.  19, 
Aug.  16, 
Nov.  1, 
Aug.  22. 
Aug.  17, 
Nov.  2, 
Oct.  31, 
June  17, 
Sept.  28, 
July  11, 
June  14, 
Sept.  2, 
Feb.  18, 
Sept.  25, 
Sept.  17, 
Sept.  20, 
Sept.  23, 
Oct.  25, 


1888. 
1890. 
1890. 
1888. 
1895. 
1887. 
1891. 
1892. 
1883. 
1891. 
1879. 
1885. 
1889. 
1880. 
1884. 
1884. 
1865. 
1879. 


'0.21H 
0.36M 
0.48-0 
0.48 

1.00 
1.00  3- 
1.101^ 

\i.iSH 

!1.41H 
1.43-1 
1.513^ 

,1.56 

'2.10 
2.41% 
3.33 

15.27^ 
7.3034 


-0.22  K 
-0.3634 

.48-0.4 
-0.48 
-0.483^ 
-1.00 

5-1.01  1-5 
-1.125^ 
-1.13M 
-1.41 

A4-IA7H 
-lASVz 
-1.54M 
-2.14 
-2.41 
-3.3334 
5.2934 
7.31 


The  English  Derby,  Epsom  Downs — {English  Turf.) 
(Distance,  about  VA  miles,  run  since  1788.) 


Year. 

Owner  and  Winner. 

Sire. 

Time. 

Second. 

1904. .  . 
1905. . . 
1906... 
1907. . . 
1908. . . 
1909  .. 

Leopold  de  Rothschild's  St.  Amant 

Lord  Rosebery's  Cicero 

Maj.  Loeder's  Spearmint 

Richard  Croker's  Orby 

E.  Ginistrelli's  Signorinetta 

King  Edward's  ^linoru 

St.  Frusquin  . 

Satire 

Carbine 

Orme 

Chaleureux.  .  . 

Cyllene 

Cyllene 

Sunbridge.  .  .  . 
Cyllene 

2.45  4-5 
2.39  3-5 
2.36  4-5 
2.44 

2.39  4-5 
2.42  2-5 

2.35  1-5 

2.36  4-5 
2.38  4-5 

John  O'Gaunt. 

Jardy. 

Picton. 

Siieve  Gallion. 

Primer. 

Louviers. 

1910... 
1911... 
1912... 

Mr.  Fairie's  Lemberg* 

J.  B.  Joel's  Sunstar •. 

W.  Raphael's  Pagalie 

Greenback. 

Steadfast. 

Jaegar. 

On  June  28,  1913,  Whisk  Broom  2(1,  owned  by  Hany  Payne 
Wliitney,  established  a  new  turf  record  when  he  v/on  the  Subur- 
ban handicap  at  a  mile  and  a  quarter  in  two  minutes  flat,  caiTy- 
ing  the  heavy  im^wst  of  139  pounds.    He  was  ridden  by  I^otter. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  record  price  for  which  any 
horse  has  ever  been  sold  was  paid  for  a  Thoroughbred.  A  French 
racing  man,  Edmund  Blanc,  gave  $200,000  for  the  ten-year-old 
English  Thoroughbred  stallion,  AMiite  Knight.  Previous  record 
prices  were  $196,875  for  Flying  Fox,  $157,500  each  for  Cyllene 
and  Diamond  Jubilee,  and  $156,250  for  Ormonde.  Kocksand 
has  recently  been  exported  from  this  country  at  a  price  of 
$150,000. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  83 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  BREEDS 


Breeds  may  be  classified  according  to  the  type  to  which  their 
representatives  conform,  as: 

Draft  Breeds. — Percheron,  Belgian,  Clydesdale,  Shire,  and 
Suffolk. 

Heavy  Harness  Breeds. — Hackney,  Yorkshire  Coach,  Cleve^ 
land  Bay,  French  Coach,  Gennan  Coach,  and  Russian  Orloff. 

Light  Harness  Breed. — American  Standardbred. 

Saddle  Breeds. — Thoroughbred,  American  Saddle  Horse  and 
Arabian. 

Ponies. — ^Shetlancl,  Welsh,  and  Hackney. 

REVIEW 

1.  AVhat  Is  a  breed?    And  of  what  impoi-tance  are  breeds? 

2.  What  are  the  three  factors  that  deteruiiue  breed  characteristics? 

3.  What  are  the  essential  thiii^s  to  consider  in  a  stndy  of  the  breeds? 

4.  What  have  been  considered  as  the  foundation  stocks  from  which  all 

breeds  have  had  their  origin? 

5.  What  additional  light  have  the  investigations  of  Ewart  and  Ridge- 

Avay  throAvn  on  this  subject? 
fi.  What  are  the  most  important  facts  concerning  the  horses  in  Arabia? 

7.  To  Avhat  extent  may  color  indicate  Arab  blood? 

8.  Review  the  important  facts  in  the  history  of  the  Thoroughbredr^ 
0.  Discuss  the  Thoroughbred  in  its  relation  to  other  breeds.      \^ 

10.  AVhat  are  the  possibilities  of  the  Thoroughbred  at  the  present  time? 


/ 


CHAPTER  VII 
DRAFT  BREEDS 


The  breeds  of  draft  horses  here  considered  are  the  Percheron, 
the  Belgian,  the  Clydesdale,  the  Shire,  and  the  Suffolk. 


THE    PERCHEROX 


France  affords  an  exani])le  of  the  couiniuiiity  svstem  of 
breeding.  While  the  production  of  the  different  types  of  horses 
is  extensively  practiced  in  the  country  at  large,  the  breeders  of 
different  districts  are  devoting  themselves  to  the  production  of 
one  type  more  or  less  exclusively,  witli  the  result  that  many  a 
horse  breeding  section  is  noted  for  a  class  of  horses  distinctive 
of  and  bearing  the  name  of  that  community.  Thus,  we  have  the 
Percheron  of  LaPerche,  the  Boidonnaise  from  that  part  of  the 
country  contiguous  to  Boulogne,  the  Nivernais  of  ^Uevre,  the 
Ardennaise  of  Ardennes,  and  others. 

In  America,  by  common  consideration  and  studbook  regis- 
tration the  Percheron  is  disting-uished  from  the  other  French 
draft  breeds  collectively.  In  France,  both  the  Percheron  and 
Boulonnaise  are  represented  by  studbook  associations. 

LaPerche  is  a  district  comprising  about  three  thousand  square 
miles,  situated  in  the  northeni  or  inland  part  of  Xonnandy.  It 
has  a  country-Avide  rej^utation  for  its  grass  land  and  the  horses 
produced  thereon. 

Flemish  blood  predominated  in  Avhat  may  be  regarded  as  the 
native  stock  of  France.  On  this  cold  blood  base,  repeated  top 
crosses  of  Oriental  blood  were  made,  the  relative  ]u'oportions  of 
hot  and  cold  blood  varying  in  the  case  of  the  different  French 
breeds. 

The  foundation  of  the  Percheron  was  composed  of  the  Xor- 
man  descendants  of  the  original  Flemish  stock,  mated  with 
Oriental  stallions,  these  crosses  being  either  incidental  to  cur- 
rent events  or  made  with  a  definite  purpose  in  ^dew.  They  had 
a  most  important  significance  in  determining  the  type  of  horse 
84 


DRAFT  BREEDS  85 

which  the  Percheron  was  to  be.  When  the  Saracens  invaded 
France  in  732  and  were  defeated  bj  Charles  Martel,  the  Orien- 
tal horses  upon  which  they  were  mounted,  mostly  stallions,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Franks  and  were  eventually,  by  this  means, 
distributed  throughout  the  different  parts  of  the  country.  The 
successful  Crusaders  also  brought  back  with  them  entire  horses, 
as  the  spoils  of  war,  and  here  was  a  direct  though  unintentional 
infusion  of  Oriental  blood. 

Later  when  the  desirable  effect  of  this  Oriental  top  cross  was 
manifested,  there  were  more  or  less  systematic  im]:)ortations  of 
Oriental  sires,  the  most  notable  of  which  was  Gallipoli,  a  gray 
liorse,  introduced  from  the  Orient  in  1820,  whose  impress  on 
the  horses  of  the  country,  especially  through  his  grandson  Jean 
Le  Blanc,  was  most  marked. 

Good  grass  and  selection  are  the  other  factors  chiefly  respon- 
sible for  the  Percherons  we  have  to-day.  LaPerche  is  world- 
famed  as  a  grazing  district. 

Early  Service. — The  service  in  which  the  Percheron  first 
attained  distinction  was  as  a  stage-coach  horse,  in  the  ante-rail- 
road days,  when  all  freight  and  express  as  well  as  passengers 
were  moved  in  this  way  (Figs.  GQ  and  67).  It  was  a  rapid 
draft  job,  hauling  loads  at  an  eight  mile  clip  for  long  and  hard 
stages.  An  ordinary  road  horse  could  not  pull  the  load,  while 
an  ordinary  draft  liorse  could  not  stand  the  pace  nor  the  dis- 
tance. The  breeders  of  LaPerche  specialized  in  tlie  production 
of  this  type  of  horse,  and  their  success  marked  the  beginning  of 
Percheron  popularity  (Fig.  GS). 

The  advent  of  railroads  in  the  nineteenth  century  struck  a 
telling  blow  at  the  diligence  or  stage-coach  horse.  At  tliis  crisis 
the  Frencli  breeders  displayed  a  foresight  that  might  well  be 
emulated  by  horse  breeders  of  the  present  motor  period.  Instead 
of  howling  calamity  and  defaming  the  locomotive,  they  had  fore- 
sight enough  to  perceive  a  new  era  of  agricultural  production 
on  the  one  hand  and  of  commercial  traffic  on  the  other,  which 
had  never  before  been  possible,  and  which  would  require  horses 
in  greater  numbers  than  ever.  But  the  nature  of  service  in  the 
new  field  created  essentially  by  the  locomotive  and  railway  train 
would  require  horses  of  quite  a  different  stamp  than  had  pre- 


86 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


DRAFT  BREEDS 


87 


o  £. 

5-^ 


o  < 


88  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

viouslj  been  produced  in  LaPerche ;  the  loads  to  be  moved  would 
be  greater,  the  distance  less,  and  time  allowance  more  liberal. 
The  true  draft  horse  was  to  supersede  the  old  ^'  diligence  "  type, 
but  even  in  their  effoits  to  meet  the  demand  for  a  horse  of  greater 
weight  and  j^ower,  the  LaPerche  breeders  did  not  lose  sight  of 
the  desirable  characteristics  of  hot  blood  derivation,  and  so  far 
as  they  were  correlated  with  the  increase  in  size  and  draftiness, 
attributes  of  the  cold  parent  stock,  they  were  retaine<l.     To  this 


Fig.  6S. — An  old-fashioned  Percheron.  a  rapid  draft  horse  of  a 
type  evolved  in  the  diligence  service. 

may  be  attributed  the  most  distinctive  features  of  the  present 
Percheron. 

Distinctive  Features. — He  may  attain  ton  weight  and  yet 
possess  a  refinement  of  head  and  neck,  a  general  suppleness  of 
form,  a  texture  of  bone  and  hoof,  a  degree  of  quality  and  finish 
throughout,  together  with  an  energetic,  yet  perfectly  tractable, 
temperament  and  disposition,  not  equalled  in  any  of  the  other 
draft  breeds.  Furthermore,  the  typical  Percheron  bears  his 
great  weight  with  an  airiness  and  boldness  that  is  unusual. 


DRAFT  BREEDS 


89 


But  to  the  same  source  may  be  charged  some  of  his  deficien- 
cies. He  is  sometimes  too  fine,  not  sufficiently  drafty  in  scale 
or  fonUj  and  too  hot  in  disposition  to  qualify,  acceptably,  for  the 
heaviest  draft  work. 

The  features  by  which  the  Percherons  (Fig.  69)  may  be 
most  readily  distinguished  from  representatives  of  other  draft 
breeds,  reckoned  on  the  basis  of  averages,  are  size,  fully  up  to 
draft  requirements  but  hardly  equal  to  that  of  the  Shire  and 


Fig.  G'J.-   A  IVu  n*  i«,ii  .stallion,  showing  Ihu  breed  character,  the  form, 
and  the  color  that  are  most  typically  Percheron. 


Belgian ;  fonn,  that  is  somewhat  more  up-standing,  more 
rounded  in  contour,  less  square  ended  and  blocky,  at  all  events 
not  as  squatty  as  in  the  Belgian,  although  he  is  not  a  leggy,  light 
quartered  horse ;  head  of  good  proportions,  sharply  defined  fea- 
tures, prominent,  full,  bright  eyes,  rather  neat  ear,  a  fair  length 
of  neck,  well  finished  in  crest  and  throttle ;  bone  of  good  texture 
but  in  some  cases  too  fine,  as  determined  by  popular  standard ; 
canons  devoid  of  feather ;  well-formed  feet,  of  medium  size  and 
of  the  very  best  texture  of  blue  horn. 


90  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

Color  is  gray  or  black  most  commonly,  the  former  more  typi- 
cal and  growing  in  favor,  as  expressed  in  the  demand,  although, 
bays,  browns,  chestnuts,  and  even  roans  are  encountered. 

Way  of  going  is  not  more  accurate,  but  manifests  a  snap  and 
boldness  not  displayed  by  draft  horses  as  a  rule. 

Respects  in  which  some  Percherons  are  not  strong  and  to  the 
correction  of  which  conscientious  and  intelligent  breeders  are 
giving  their  attention  are  the  set  of  the  hind  legs,  the  conforma- 
tion of  the  liocks,  and  the  slope  of  the  pasterns. 

Economic  Importance. — Percherons  outnumber  in  this  coun- 
try all  other  draft  breeds  combined,  and  their  popularity  seems 
to  be  increasing  proportionately.  This  is  no  doul)t  due,  in  part, 
to  the  good  start  given  the  breed  by  the  pioneer  breeders  and 
importers.  From  the  time  of  their  introduction  into  Union  and 
Pickaway  counties,  Ohio,  in  1851,  through  their  period  of  de- 
veloj^ment  in  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Iowa,  especially,  tliey  have  been 
given  every  opportunity  to  make  good.  But  more  important  than 
this,  perhaps,  has  been  their  general  adaptability  to  meet  the  con- 
ditions of  the  average  American  farmer.  Even  tliough  the  de- 
mand for  the  highest  class  of  draft  horses  is  from  the  cities,  their 
production  must,  of  necessity,  involve  the  farmer.  It  is  useless 
to  attempt  to  interest  the  practical  farmer  in  a  proposition  which 
does  not  appeal  to  him  in  a  practical  sense.  Prom  the  very  first 
the  Percheron  has  made  a  strong  bid  for  his  favor.  The  adapt- 
ability which  characterizes  the  Percheron  as  a  breed  may  also 
be  noticed  in  his  use  as  a  pure-bred  sire.  Prom  a  patronage  of 
the  most  miscellaneous  sort  of  mares,  a  Percheron  will  average 
a  large  percentage  of  marketable  colts,  varying,  it  is  true,  from 
weight-cariTing  saddle  horses  and  hunters,  and  even  harness 
horses,  to  the  draf tiest  of  draft  horses,  but  each  good  in  his  class. 
The  fact  that  most  native  American  mares  have  some  degree,  if 
not  a  preponderance,  of  hot  blood  in  their  ancestry  and  may, 
therefore,  be  expected  to  nick  better  Avith  Percheron  stallions, 
may  accoimt  for  the  manifest  excellence  of  the  latter  in  this 
respect. 

THE  BELGIAN 

Belgium  is  a  part  of  the  original  territory  to  which  the  old 
Flanders  horse  was  indigenous,  and  as  the  history  of  the  breed 


DRAFT  BREEDS  91 

records  no  other  stock,  we  conclude  that  this  breed  is,  directly 
and  exclusively,  descended  from  the  old  Flemish  stock.  There 
are  two  respects,  however,  in  which  the  Flemish  ancestry  is  not 
indicated,  namely,  the  absence  of  much  hair  and  the  infrequency 
of  the  black  color.  Selection  may  account  for  these  modifications, 
however. 

Belgium  is  essentially  an  agricultural  country,  flat  and  low- 
lying  for  the  most  part,  and  horse  breeding  in  a  limited  way  is 
followed  by  most  farmers.  Each  one  has  a  colt  or  two  to  turn  off 
each  year.  The  Belgian  Draft  Horse  Society  has  done  nuich  in 
the  way  of  conducting  shows,  offering  prizes,  and  providing 
subsidies  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  breed. 

Three  Original  Types. — There  were  originally,  according 
to  Herr  Van  Schelle,  who  had  charge  of  the  Belgian  Government 
horse  exhibit  at  the  St.  Louis  Exposition,  three  types  of  draft 
horses  in  Belgium :  The  Flemish,  the  largest,  produced  nearest 
the  coast;  the  Braba^on,  an  intermediate  type,  bred  farther  in- 
land ;  and  the  Ardennaise,  a  small,  rapid  draft  horse  similar  and 
akin  to  the  French  horse  of  that  name,  bred  in  the  border  dis- 
tricts. There  has  been  more  or  less  amalgamation  of  these  three 
originally  distinct  types  in  the  evolution  of  the  present-day 
Belgian  cart  horses. 

The  American  Type  of  Belgian. — Tt  is  claimed  that  the  type 
has  been  considerably  modified  in  accordance  with  the  demand 
of  American  buyers.  The  old  fashioned,  more  massive,  but  much 
less  refined  stamp  still  receives  most  favor  in  Belgium.  The 
accepted  type  of  Belgian  horse  in  America  is  perhaps  the  most 
unifonnly  drafty  of  any  of  the  breeds,  short  legs,  a  compact  body 
(Fig.  TO),  wide,  muscular  ends,  and  deep,  wide,  spreading  ribs 
being  the  rule.  The  head  is  square  and  medium  sized,  the  neck 
short  and  heavy  crested.  Eoans  and  chestnuts  predominate, 
though  bays,  browns,  and  occasionally  grays  and  blacks  appear. 
Hoofs  deficient  in  circumference,  bone  that  is  not  sufficiently 
flat,  and  necks  that  are  too  short  and  heavy,  with  a  general 
absence  of  refinement,  are  features  in  which  average  representa- 
tives of  this  breed  are  still  subject  to  improvement.  They  show 
an  interesting  confonnation  of  the  hamstring,  the  muscles  being 
apparently  inserted  directly  upon  the  point  of  the  hock,  mthout 
the  usual  tendinous  continuation.     The  extreme  wddth  of  the 


92 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


Belgian  may  cause  liiiii  to  roll  or  paddle  somewhat  at  the  walk, 
but  it  is  surprising  how  well  many  of  them  trot. 

The  Belgians  have  made  Avonderful  progress  in  this  country^ 
considering  that  they  have  been  attracting  much  attention  here 
only  since  about  1900.  The  improvement  noted  in  this  time  has 
been  equally  remarkable.  The  Belgian  sire  has  the  effect  of  most 
consistently  improving  the  draft  fomi  of  his  get,  especially  those 


Fig.  70. — A  Belgian  stallion  of  most  acceptable  stamp,  embodying  the  desirable  features  of 
draftiness  and  good  middle,  and  subject  to  little  criticism  of  head  and  neck  or  legs  and  feet. 


from  leggy,  light-waisted  mares,  and  mares  of  this  stamp  are  most 
likely  to  have  the  degree  of  quality  requisite  to  offset  the  defi- 
ciency, in  this  respect,  sometimes  showTi  by  the  pure-bred  Bel- 
gian. Belgian  grades  are  especially  popular  among  feeders,  it 
being  characteristic  of  the  breed  to  be  good  doers.  They  also  ship 
unusually  well.  Belgians  have  probably  shown,  in  this  country, 
greater  percentage  increase  in  numbers  and  in  merit  than  any 
other  draft  breed. 


DRAFT  BREEDS  93 

THE  BRITISH  BREEDS 

Horse  history  in  Great  Britain  dates  back  to  55  B.C.,  the  date 
of  the  Koman  Conquest.  Caesar's  description  of  the  chariot 
manoeu\Tes,  by  which  his  advance  was  opposed,  would  indicate 
the  existence  at  that  time  of  a  horse,  diminutive  in  stature,  but 
drafty  in  buiki,  whose  feats  of  handiness  were  remarkable. 
British  coins,  issued  in  the  first  century,  confirm  this  opinion 
by  the  powerful  type  of  horse  struck  on  the  metal. 

During  the  seventh  century  horses  came  intO'  use  for  riding. 
The  chief  demand  was  for  the  mounting  of  infantry  forces,  as  a 
means  of  transportation  only,  the  idea  of  cavalry  or  any  form  of 
fighting  from  horseback  being  suggested  later  by  the  Konnans. 
As  the  soldier's  chain  armor  at  this  period  was  heayj  and  the 
marches  Avere  hard,  a  large,  stout  horse  was  required. 

Later  (1300)  when  plate  armor  began  to  replace  chain,  and 
the  horses  tliemselves  were  protected,  the  effectiveness  of  weapons 
liaving  been  increased,  the  weight  imposed  upon  them  became 
still  greater  and  size  more  essential.  Horse  breeding  was 
given  most  careful  consideration  by  the  Throne.  The  use  of 
small  stallions  was  discouraged  and  even  prohibited  by  royal 
edict.  The  condition  existed  until  modified  methods  of  con- 
ducting warfare,  incidental  to  the  invention  of  gunpowder 
(1650),  led  to  the  discarding  cf  armoir  and  consequently  of 
war  horses  of  this  type. 

Advent  of  Draft  Horses. — Up  to  the  eighteenth  century 
draft  work  had  been  done  principally  by  oxen  or  by  inferior 
horses,  not  fit  for  service-  in  war.  After  the  beginning  of  that 
century,  with  its  relegation  of  the  war  horse  from  the  battlefield 
to  IxBcome  a  humble  beast  of  burden,  the  real  era  of  the  draft 
horse  began.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  two 
distinct  types  of  cart  horses  are  mentioned  by  Young,  the  Large 
Black  Old  English  horse  and  the  Suffolk  Punch. 

Thus  the  British  draft  breeds  have  had  a  long  period  of 
development,  the  primary  motive  of  which  was  war,  not  work. 
During,  or  even  before,  the  first  century,  horses  possessed  some 
of  the  same  characters  which  are  now  dominant  in  these  breeds. 


94  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

THE   CLYDESDALE 

This  breed  takes  its  name  from  the  Clyde  River  in  Scotland, 
in  the  valley  of  which,  especially  tlie  counties  of  Ayr  and  Lanark, 
it  has  been  developed.  The  Clydesdale  district  is  characterized 
by  a  rather  broken  surface  and  a  stiff  clay  soil.  The  earliest 
history  of  horses  in  Britain  describes  a  horse  akin  to  the  Scandi- 
navian ponies,  the  size  of  Avhich  Avas  systematically  increased, 
by  royal  edict,  after  the  importance  of  greater  size  in  war  horses 
Avas  impressed  u])on  the  Britons  by  the  Boman  conquest.  While 
the  original  British  stock  Avas  more  or  less  composite,  there  is  no 
evidence  to  contradict  that  the  blood  of  the  British  draft  breeds 
was  derived,  essentially,  from  the  Flanders  source. 

The  imj^ortation  of  Flemish  stallions  into  both  Scotland  and 
England  in  numbers  as  great  as  one  hundred  at  a  time,  as  in  the 
case  of  King  John,  is  a.  matter  of  record.  Furthermore,  the 
interchange  of  horses  across  the  border  is  acknowledged,  even 
up  to  comparatively  recent  times,  so  that  the  distingiiishing  dif- 
ferences between  the  three  British  draft  breeds  must  be  ac- 
counted for  in  other  ways  than  by  their  origin  in  blood,  Avliich 
it  must  be  gTanted  had  much  in  common.  The  conditions  of  life 
surrounding  these  breeds  during  their  formative  period,  and 
especially  the  variance  in  the  notion  of  Avhat  constitutes  a  draft 
horse,  as  expressed  by  the  Scotchman  and  the  Englishman,  are 
ample  to  account  for  Avhatever  differences  in  type  there  may  be. 

The  Scotchman's  standard  attaches  especial  importance  to 
tlic  locomotory  apparatus,  legs,  pasterns,  and  feet,  and  the  way 
a  horse  moves.  A  free,  springy  stride  executed  Avith  a  AA^onder- 
ful  degTce  of  trueness  and  as  much  flash  as  is  consistent  vdth. 
poAver  haA^e  receiA^ed  primaiy  consideration.  As  a  consequence 
of  the  inevitable  law  of  coiTelation,  there  has  come  to  be  asso- 
ciated Avitli  this  character  of  stride  more  length  of  leg  and  back, 
less  Avidth  and  massiveness,  and  a  somcAvhat  shorter  rib  than 
is  characteristic  of  the  extreme  draft  ty]3e. 

Characteristics  of  Clydesdales. — ^Miile  Clydesdale  and 
Shire  grades,  and  CA^en  pure  breds,  Avhich  depart  somewhat  from 
the  true  type,  may  have  much  in  common,  there  is  no  difficulty 


DRAFT  BREEDS 


95 


In  clistingiiisliing  typical  rei^resentatives  of  the  two  breeds.  In 
contrast  with  representatives  of  most  other  breeds,  the  Clydes- 
dale is  recognized  as  a  horse  standing  over  more  ground,  with  a 
toppy  carriage,  lacking  somewhat  in  w^idth  and  compactness,  but 
well  set  np  on  legs,  the  direction  of  whicli,  viewed  from  either  the 
side  or  the  end,  is  most  accurate  (Fig.  71).     The  quality  of  the 


Fig.  71. — A  Clydesdale  .stallion  of  most  impressive  character,  showing  the  form,  .set- 
ting of  hind  legs,  slope  of  pasterns,  quality  of  bone,  feather,  and  distribution  of  white  most 
desirable  in  this  breed. 


lx>ne  is  ideal ;  the  conformation  of  the  hocks  the  most  perfect  of 
any  of  the  draft  breeds ;  the  slope  of  the  pasterns  offers  tlie  great- 
est relief  to  concussion,  and  at  the  same  time  affords  an  angle  of 
greatest  degree  through  w^hich  to  lift.  In  size  and  form  the  feet 
reflect  the  gi*eat  care  that  has  been  exerted  in  selection,  although 
the  texture  of  horn,  especially  in  white  points,  is  not  as  dense  and 
tough  as  in  the  case  of  the  Percheron.  The  amount  of  feather  has 
been  materially  reduced  in  compliance  with  American  demand, 


96  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

its  quality  being  of  the  finest.  The  Scotchman  still  holds  to  the 
presence  of  feather,  even  stimulating  its  growth  by  artificial 
means  in  some  instances.  The  superiority  of  the  Clydesdale  in 
action  is  a  point  quite  generally  conceded.  The  direction  and 
conformation  of  his  legs  are  such  as  to  insure  the  straightest, 
springiest  stride  of  which  a  draft  horse  is  capable. 

Color. — Gray  Clydesdales  have  been  common  at  times  in  the 
history  of  the  breed,  but  are  now  discriminated  against  in  favor 
of  bays  and  bro^^^lS,  witli  occasional  blacks,  chestnuts,  and  roans. 
White  markings  are  characteristic,  to  the  extent  of  splashes  of 
white  on  tlie  body  or  an  even  distribution  of  white  hair  through- 
out the  coat,  in  addition  to  white  in  the  face  and  on  all  four  legs. 

Judged  by  the  standards  of  other  breeds,  the  Clydesdale  has 
been  criticised  as  deficient  in  scale  and  draftiness,  and  as  be- 
ing plain  in  the  head,  low  in  the  Imck,  short  in  the  rib,  with  a 
shelly  foot,  and  too  nmch  white,  with  no  regularity  of  distribu- 
tion. 

Although  introduced  at  a  comparatively  early  date,  the 
Clydesdale  has  not  received  the  consideration  in  this  country 
Avhich  he  seems  to  merit 

THE    SHIRE 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out,  in  reviewing  the  history  of 
the  Clydesdale,  that  from  essentially  the  same  original  material 
the  Scotchman  has  evolved  the  Clydesdale  and  the  Englishman 
the  Shire,  in  accordance  with  their  own  divergent  conceptions  of 
what  a  draft  horse  should  be,  and  that,  while  they  have  much  in 
common,  the  characters  which  distinguish  them  are  extremely 
unlike.  To  be  sure,  the  low-lying  fenn  country  of  Cambridge 
and  Lincolnshire  is  more  conducive  to  massive  growth  than  is 
Scotland,  it  being  also  the  home  of  the  largest  breed  of  sheep. 
Here  the  Shire  and  his  antecedent,  the  black  Lincolnshire  cart 
horse,  have  been  chiefly  bred,  but  this  environment  has  only  sec- 
onded the  English  breeder  in  the  attainment  of  his  ideal. 

Characteristics. — The  typical  Shire  will  weigh  more  on  the 
average  than  any  other  draft  horse,  although  he  is  scarcely  as 
blocky  in  form  as  the  Belgian  (Fig.  72).  He  possesses  the  most 
substance,  such  as  it  is,  but  there  is  an  absence  of  quality,  marked 


DRAFT  BREEDS 


97 


in  size  and  contour  of  head,  texture  of  hair,  bone,  and  hoof — 
the  hair  showing  an  inclination  to  be  coarse  and  kinky,  espe- 
cially in  the  feather,  the  bone  to  be  round  and  meaty,  and  the 
hoof  to  be  of  a  loose,  spong;)",  or  shelly  texture.  His  tempera- 
ment is  extremely  lymphatic,  rendering  him  slower  than  is 
desired  by  many.     On  the  basis  of  the  scales  and  tape  line  stand- 


Fio. 


'2. — A  Shire  stallion  of  most  approved  type,  combining  an  unusual  degree  of  quality 
and  character  with  the  size,  substance,  and  draftiness  typical  of  this  breed. 


ard,  the  Shire  measures  up  well,  but  analyzed  in  minute  detail 
he  is  subject  to  some  criticism,  especially  in  so  far  as  liis  materials 
of  construction  are  concerned. 

Color. — The  range  of  color  in  the  Shire  is  greater  than  in 

any  other  draft  breed.     Originally  of  sooty  black,  with  white 

points,  he.  may  now  be  found  of  any  color,  from  black  through 

the  different  shades  of  bay,  brown,  and  chestnut  to  roan  and 

7 


98  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

gray.  A  considerable  amount  of  white,  frequently  too  much,  on 
face  and  legs  is  common. 

The  popularity  of  the  Shire  in  this  country  has  been  re- 
stricted rather  than  general.  There  are  some  parts  where  he  is 
bred  almost  exclusively,  others  in  which  he  is  almost  unknown. 
His  grossness,  abundant  feather,  and  sluggish  moyements  pre- 
vent him  from  making  a  strong  bid  for  general  favor  in  compe- 
tition with  the  other  breeds. 

Crosses. — A  percentage  of  Shire  blood,  especially  in  the 
dams  from  which  market  geldings  are  produced,  is  acknowl- 
edged to  be  a  valuable  asset  Attention  has  been  called  to  the 
fact  that  much  credit  which  belongs  to  the  Shire  has  been  as- 
signed to  other  breeds  through  just  this  sort  of  mating,  the  sires 
usually  being  most  conspicuous  and  the  dams  obscure.  Size  and 
substance  can  be  derived  with  greater  certainty  from  Shire  blood 
than  from  any  other  line  of  breeding. 

SUFFOLK 

The  Suffolks  are  characterized  as  being  of  the  purest  lineage, 
most  uniform  color,  and  are  bred  more  exclusively  for  farm  work 
than  any  of  the  draft  breeds. 

Their  origin  is  untraced,  but  horses  of  this  stamp  are  known 
to  have  been  bred  in  Suffolk  for  over  two  centuries.  So  care- 
fully has  their  lineage  been  guarded  that  practically  all  of  the 
pure-bred  representatives  of  the  breed  trace  back  to  a  common 
ancestor,  The  Crisp  Horse  of  Ufford,  foaled  in  1768.  They  are 
produced  almost  exclusively  in  Suffolk  and  adjoining  Essex,  in 
eastern  England,  by  farmers  and  for  farming  purposes. 

Their  especial  adaptability  for  farm  service  is  found  in  their 
good  dispositions,  which  render  them  so  easy  of  control  as  to  make 
it  possible  to  work  them  in  tandem  hitches  without  lines ;  their 
easy  keeping  quality,  working  long  hours  between  feeds;  and 
their  persistence  at  the  collar,  pulling  true  under  all  circum- 
stances. 

Their  distinguishing  characteristics  are  tlie  invariable  chest- 
nut color  of  varying  shades  (Fig.  73) ,  mth  little  if  any  white,  but 
often  with  flaxen  manes  and  tails;  their  smooth,  rotund  form; 


DRAFT  BREEDS 


99 


and  a  clean  boned  leg,  devoid  of  feather.     The  old-fashioned  ex- 
aggerated punch  form  is  no  longer  common. 

Suffolks  have  been  alleged  to  be  under  draft  weight,  too  light 
in  bone,  unbalanced  in  the  proportion  of  body  to  legs,  and  with 
a  foot  inclining  to  be  flat  and  shelly.  These  points  have  all  been 
materially  strengthened  in  the  most  approved  type  of  the  present- 
day  Suffolk. 


Fig. 


73. — A  Suffolk  stallion  of  the  punch  form,  the  clean  bone  and  the  chestnut  color  char- 
acteristic of  this  breed. 


Distribution. — Suffolks  have  never  been  imported  or  bred 
in  any  considerable  numbers  in  this  country,  although  in  some 
sections  there  is  an  unaccountable  prejudice  in  their  favor,  espe- 
cially among  farmers,  and  in  many  instances  they  have  been 
enthusiastically  received  when  shown.  It  is  claimed  they  are 
not  available  in  large  numbers,  the  area  devoted  to  their  produc- 
tion being  limited  and  there  being  an  active  demand  for  them 


100  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

at  home  and  in  South  America,  Africa,  Eussia,  Xew  Zealand, 
Australia,  and  Canada. 

Crosses. — So  far  as  their  grades  have  heen  seen,  thej  have 
been  of  a  rich  chestnut  color,  making  it  easy  to  match  up  a  team, 
smooth  turned,  well  formed  of  body,  of  good  size,  and  set  upon 
feet  and  legs  not  subject  to  serious  criticism.  The  prepotency 
of  the  Suffolk  sire  on  grade  mares  is  well  marked  in  other  re- 
spects than  color.  Grade  Suffolk  mares  are  said  to  make  most 
■acceptable  dams  from  which  to  breed  mules  on  account  of  their 
smooth  form. 

REVIEW 

1.  Name  the  draft  breeds  and  the  eoiintiy  to  which  each  is  native. 

2.  How  are  the  most  distinctive  charactei-s  of  the  Pereheron  accounted 

for? 

3.  To  what  is  the  g-eneral  popularity  of  the  Pereheron  in  this  country 

due? 

4.  What  characteristics  of  the  Belgian  are  responsible  for  the  increas- 

ing favor  sho^^^l  them  in  this  countiy? 

5.  What  improvement  has  been  marked  in  this  breed  since  its  intro- 

duction into  America  ? 

6.  Review  the  early  hoi^se  history  of  Great  Britain. 

7.  Compare  a-  typical  Clydesdale  and  a  typical  Shire  and  give  reasons 

for  the  differences  noted. 
S.  Describe  a  representative  Clydesdale  stallion. 

9.  Of  what  value  is  Shire  blood  in  the  production  of  gn'ade  geldings? 
10.  To  what  kind  of  work  is  the  Suffolk,  as  a  breed,  claimed  to  be  best 
adapted  and  why? 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  HEAVY  HARNESS  BREEDS 

Six  breeds  are  here  included.  They  are  discussed  in  the 
following  order:  The  Hackney,  the  French  Coach,  the  Genuan 
Coach,  the  Cleveland  Bay,  the  Yorkshire  Coach,  and  the  Rus- 
sian Orloff.  The  American  Carnage  Horse,  now  being  bred  by 
the  U.  S.  Government,  is  of  this  type. 

THE  HACKNEY  --^-v^t 

Curiously  enough,  tliis  horse,  which  is  preeminently  a  show- 
harness  horse  today  and  more  generally  criticised  as  deficient  in 
stamina  than  in  any  other  one  respect,  was  originally  a  road  horse 
of  most  unusual  endurance,  used  chiefly  under  saddle  and  carry- 
ing great  Aveight.  The  very  name  ''  Hack  '^  to  which  Hackney 
was  contracted  is  suggestive  of  tliis  type  of  horse.  The  term 
Hackney  is  adapted  from  the  French  Haquenee,  originally  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  Equus. 

Early  Hackney  history  was  set  in  Norfolk  and  adjacent 
counties  where  there  existed  a  remarkable  family  of  distance 
trotters  as  early  as  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
This  was  in  the  primitive  days  of  roads  and  vehicles,  so  that 
these  l^orfolk  trQtters*v  as  they  were  called,  were  used  chiefly 
under  saddle.  Well-authenticated  records  of  seventeen  miles 
an  hour  over  ordinary  roads  exist.  The  fact  that  this  was  the 
first  line  of  trotters  is  most  significant.  England  had  already 
developed  the  nmning  race  horse,  and  there  had  existed  at  one 
time  ambling  riding  horses,,  but  this  was  the  first  horse  in  the 
world  to  trot  fast.  This  fact  is  emphasized,  as  it  has  a  bearing 
on  the  later  evolution  of  our  own  Standardbred  trotter.  This 
trotting  instinct  in  the  prototype  of  the  modern  Hackney  has 
been  accounted  for  in  various  ways.  Since  these  horses  were 
originally  stoutly  made,  blocky,  and  heavy-fronted  and  have 
remained  so  until  comparatively  recently,  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  they  carried,  in  addition  to  the  Thoroughbred  blood 
which  predominated  at  that  time,  some  degi'ee  of  cold  blood. 

101 


102  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

Duteh  stock  has  been  suggested  as  a  possible  source  of  this. 
There  were  big  black  trotters  in  Friesland,  but  they  showed  no 
such  speed  at  tliis  gait  as  did  the  Xorfolk  Cob.  Perhaps  the 
speed,  courage,  and  stamina  of  the  Thoroughbred,  coupled  with 
the  natural  inclination  to  trot  of  the  colder  blooded  Friesland 
"  hart-draver,"  resulted  in  the  square-gaited,  fast,  enduring,  and 
rather  high  going  Norfolk  trotter. 

The  real  beginning  of  the  Hackney  breed  is  fixed  at  the 
original  Shales  horse,  foaled  1760,  bv  Blaze,  Thoroughbred  race 
horse,  three  generations  removed  from  the  Darley  Arabian,  out 
of  a  stout,  common,  probably  hunting  mare  of  Norfolk. 

Families  conspicuous  in  the  history  of  the  t>reed  have  been 
the  Fireaways,  the  Denmarks,  the  Danegelts  and  the  Purick- 
willows.  Leading  sires  at  the  present  time  are  Polonius, 
Mathias,  Royal  Danegelt,  and  His  Majesty. 

With  the  improvement  in  roads  and  vehicles.  Hackneys  were 
used  more  in  harness,  and  their  naturally  high,  trappy  step  was 
cultivated.  They  have  eventually  become  the  harness  horse  par 
excellence  in  America  as  in  England. 

Description. — Typical  Hackneys  are  comparatively  short 
legged  horses,  rarely  standing  over  15—3,  although  they  weigh 
well  for  their  stature.  They  are  of  true  harness  form  most  uni- 
formly of  any  of  the  breeds  (Fig.  74).  Their  heads  are  square 
in  outline,  deep  in  the  jowl ;  necks  well  crested,  but  frequently 
too  strong,  lacking  finish  at  the  throttle,  and  giving  a  heavy 
forehand. 

Xatural  action,  esj^ecially  in  hocks,  is  perhaps  their  most 
distinguishing  feature ;  but  it  must  not  be  a  labored  action  that 
hits  the  ground  hard. 

Color, — Chestnut  color,  with  flashy  white  markings  all 
'round,  has  been  most  common,  although  bays,  bro\vns,  roans,  and 
blacks  are  all  acceptable.  Originally,  hard,  solid  colors  pre- 
dominated in  the  breed. 

Popularity. — The  Hackney's  premier  position  in  the  show 
ring  in  this  country  is  only  occasionally  contested  by  represen- 
tatives of  any  other  breed,  and  they  contribute  largely  to  the 
ranks  of  the  park  harness  horse.    The  Hackney  stallion  is  strong 


THE  HEAVY  HARNESS  BREEDS 


103 


in  the  impress  of  liis  shape  and  action,  and  nicks  most  satisfac- 
torily with  either  Standardbred  or  Thoroughbred  mares  in  the 
production  of  a  high  class  of  harness  or  saddle  horses. 

Registration. — The  American  Hackney  Horse  Society  main- 
tains, in  addition  to  the  full  registration  in  its  studbook,  a  half 
registry,  to  which  the  filly  foals  of  registered  Hackney  stallions, 
out  of  mares  of  Standardbred  or  Thoroughbred  breeding  that 


Fig.  74. — A  Hackney  stallion,  showing  in  high  degree  the  distinctly  harness  form,  the 
finish,  the  bold  carriage,  and  the  flash  markings  which  have,  together  with  their  natural 
action,  enabled  them  to  win  premier  rank  in  the  show  ring. 

liave  been  approved  by  an  authorized  representative  of  the  So 
ciety,  are  eligible.  The  filly  foals  of  half-registered  Hackney 
mares  are  eligible  to  full  registration. 


FRENCH    COACH 


Origin. — Since  the  seventeenth  century,  when  the  Govern- 
ment studs  or  "  haras  "  were  established,  the  French  have  been 
systematically  breeding  horses  for  army  service.     Their  method 


104 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


up  to  1840  was  to  mate  Thoroughbred  stallions  with  the  native 
French  mares  of  Xonnandy,  where  much  of  this  breeding  was 
done.  These  mares  being  of  Flemish  descent,  the  mating  con- 
stituted practically  a  hot  top  cross  on  a  cold  base.  Horses  so 
bred  were  called,  most  appropriately,  demi  sang  (half  blood). 
Since  1840  the  half-breds  have  been  inter-bred,  although  Thor- 
oughbred blood  is  still  close  up  to  many  of  the  French  coachers 
that  have  come  to  this  country. 


Fig.  75. — A  French  coach  stallion  of  the  more  refined  sort. 


One  of  the  imported  stallions,  Young  Ivattlcr,  brought  to 
France  in  1820,  gave  rise  to  the  side  line  of  coach  horses,  whose 
production  was  originally  incidental  to  the  breeding  of  cavalry 
mounts.  The  get  of  Young  Rattler  for  succeeding  generations 
were  notable  for  their  heavy  harness  fonn,  style,  and  action. 
Some  of  the  demi  sang  horses  show  considerable  speed.  Trot- 
ting races,  on  the  turf  under  saddle  for  distances  from  two  to 
three  miles,  are  common  events. 


THE  HEAVY  HARNESS  BREEDS 


105 


There  are  really  three  types  of  demi  sang:  The  cavalry  horse, 
the  trotter,  and  the  so-called  coacher.  The  latter  have  been  most 
extensively  imj^orted  to  this  country,  although  there  have  been 
some  record  trotters  among-  them. 

The  correct  type  of  French  Coach  horse  as  we  know  him  in 
this  country  (Fig.  75)  is  a  gooil-sized,  rather  uji-standing  indi- 
vidual, close  and  full  made,  but  quite  bloodlike  in  head  and 
neck,  Avithers,  feet  and  legs.     The  big,  drafty  coacher  is  not 


Fig.   76. — A  French  Coacli  sire  whioh,  mated  to  trotting  bred  marcs,  has  produced  high 
class  harness  horses  with  remarkable  regularity. 


ty])ical  of  this  breed.  As  a  class,  they  do  not  flex  tlieir  hocks 
so  sliarply  as  do  the  Hackneys,  and  are  not  always  faultless  in 
knee  action. 

Color. — Bays,  browns  and  chestnuts,  with  occasional  blacks 
and  roans,  are  the  us'lial  colors,  with  one  or  two  but  rarely  more 
white  points. 

The  French  Coach  as  a  Breeder. — Some  almost  perfect  in- 
dividuals are  found  in  this  breed,  yet  they  have  never  proven  a 
great  success  in  the  stud  in  this  country.  There  are  two  possible 
reasons  for  this:  Having  had  a  cross-bred  origin  not  so  many 


106\  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

generations  back,  the  type  is  not  always  fixed,  as  is  exemplified 
among  the  breed  representatives  themselves,  hence  they  may 
not  breed  trne;  they  have  been  largely  mismated,  being  stood 
along  with  draft  stallions  and  getting  only  those  common  bred 
mares  that  w^ere  considered  too  small  to  raise  a  draft  colt.  Bred 
to  trotting-bred  mares,  results  have  proven  very  satisfactory  in 
many  instances,  in  the  production  of  good-sized,  well-shaped, 
and  high-going  harness  horses  (Fig.  T6). 

GERMAN  COACH 

Origin. — The  different  States  of  Germany  have*  been  pra 
ducing  big,  stout  horses  for  mounting  the  German  cavalry  for 
so  long  a  time  that  their  origin  is  obscure.  Some  Thoroughbred 
crosses  have  been  made,  no  doubt,  more  especially  in  certain 
States,  but  as  a  rule  the  German  horse  shows  very  little  of  the 
refining  influence  of  this  blood.  It  is  probable  that  some  Oriental 
crosses  have  also  been  made,  but  cold  blood  dominates  in  their 
veins. 

They  have  been  bred  more  or  less  under  government  super- 
vision, although  the  system  is  not  so  complete  as  in  France. 
Each  State  has  been,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  law  unto  itself,  and 
has  developed  a  type  somewhat  distinctive.  Size  and  substance 
requisite  to  'carry  the  heavy  weight  of  the  fully  equipped  Ger- 
man trooper  have  been  sought  more  regularly  than  the  pace  and 
action  of  the  harness  horse. 

The  type  of  German  coacher  which  has  been  brought  for- 
ward in  this  country  is  derived  chiefly  from  Oldenburg  and  East 
Friesland.  It  is  the  largest  of  any  of  the  heavy  harness  breeds 
(Fig.  77),  weighing  1500  pounds  in  some  instances,  with  an  ideal 
haniess  form,  if  not  too  drafty,  as  may  be  the  case,  but  quite  gen- 
erally deficient  in  quality,  finish,  style,  pace,  and  action — in 
short,  too  cold.  The  more  refined  individuals  present  a  most 
imposing  stamp  of  coach  horse,  and  some  go  very  well. 

Color. — Hard,  solid  colors  are  so  prevalent  that  importers 
will  sell  a  stallion  under  a  guarantee  to  get  a  high  percentage  of 
colts  that  wdll  be  bay,  brown  or  black,  with  very  little  if  any 
white. 


THE  HEAVY  HARNESS  BREEDS 


107 


Influence  when  Mated. — The  finer  sort  of  German  horses, 
mated  with  mares  of  trotting  or  Thoronghbrecl  breeding,  possess- 
ing the  quality  and  snap  which  the  sire  lacks,  have  produced 
with  a  fair  degree  of  uniformity  high  class  harness  horses  of  the 


Fig.  77.— a  German  Coach  stallion,  showing  the  size,  shape,  and  color  typical  of  this  breed. 

brougham  type.  Their  long  line  of  pure  breeding  has  made  the 
German  Coach  horse  more  prepotent  than  his  French  contem- 
porary. Mated  with  drafty  mares,  the  result  is  not  satisfactory. 
The  coach  horse  is  strongly  of  cold  blood  extraction,  and  coupled 
with  a  mare  of  like  inheritance  the  produce  is  neither  one  tiling 


108  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

nor  the  other.    A  good  rule  is  never  to  mate  a  coach  stallion  with 
mares  larger  than  he  is. 

CLEVELAND    BAY 

The  Cle^-eland  Bay  was  an  old-fashioned  stagecoach  horse, 
occupying  mnch  the  same  position  in  England  as  the  diligence 
Percheron  did  in  France,  although  never  so  popular  nor  so  ex- 
tensively bred.  Like  the  latter,  too,  he  was  largely  put  out  of 
business  by  the  locomotive.  Unlike  the  Percheron,  however,  the 
line  of  breeding  of  the  Cleveland  Bay,  following  the  advent  of 
the  railroad,  resulted  in  such  a  dissipation  of  the  blood  as  to 
practically  exterminate  the  breed.  The  original  Cleveland  Bay' 
could  not  qualify  as  a  harness  or  saddle  horse,  so  the  mares  were 
bred  to  Thoroughbred  sires.  In  turn  the  best  half-breds  were 
inter-bred,  or  remated  with  the  Thoroughbred,  and  produced 
either  good  hunters  or  carriage  horses. 

YORKSHIRE  COACH 

The  Yorkshire  Coach  horse  is  the  result  of  sucli  breeding. 
The  Cleveland  Bay  takes  its  name  from  the  Vale  of  Cleveland 
in  Yorkshire,  the  coach  horse  from  the  county  itself. 

THE   ORLOFF 

The  Russian  Orloff  is  not  of  much  economic  importance  in' 
America,  but  is  of  interest  in  that  it  is  the  only  other  light  har- 
ness breed  beside  our  own,  and  from  tlio  fact  tliat  there  is  a 
decided  interest  in  American  trotters  in  Kussia.  The  breed  was 
developed  solely  by  Count  Alexis  Orloff  Tschismensky,  from 
whom  it  takes  its  name. 

The  Orloff  foundation  was  laid  in  a  quarter-bred  Arab  stal- 
lion called  Bars  I,  whose  dam  was  a  Dutch  mare  (another  in- 
stance of  the  trotting  instinct  tracing  to  the  black  trotter  of 
Friesland).  The  sire's  dam  was  a  Danish  mare.  The  grandsire 
was  the  gray  Arab  Smetanxa.  This  breeding  was  begun  early 
in  the  last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


THE  HEAVY  HARNESS  BREEDS 


109 


Fig.  78. — The  lead  pair  in  this  road  four  are  pure-bred  Orloffs. 


Fig.  79. — Cannon,  at  the  head  of  the  government  stud  of  American  carnage  horses. 


110 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


AYliat  few  Orloffs  have  come  to  this  coimtrr  have  been  con- 
sidered as  heavy  harness  horses,  and  the  breed  is  therefore  classed 
in  this  division,  leaving  the  Standardbred  supreme  in  the  light 
harness  division  (Fig.  78). 


AMERICAX    CAEEIAGE    HORSE 


The  United  States  Government  has  taken  advantage  of  the 
fact  that  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  a  trotting-bred  horse  conform- 
ing to  heavy  harness  specifications  and  that  certain  blood  lines 
are  most  unifonnly  productive  of  this  type  (Fig.  79),  to  as- 


i-iu.  mj. — rairoi  t  ruiuiig-ui  l-u  lit- a  \  \  luii  af.->>  iiui  ?t->  io  Cit-oi  gt^  IV  phaeton.  Undefeated 
in  their  day,  either  single,  aa  a  pair,  or  tandem,  by  representatives  of  any  other  hea>'y  harness 
breed. 


semble  such  representatives  as  are  available,  for  tlie  foundation 
of  an  American  Carriage  Horse  breed.  It  will  apparently  yet 
require  many  generations  of  selective  breeding  before  these 
horses  can  fulfil  the  requirements  of  a  breed. 

Trotting-bred  heavy  harness  horses  are  better  qualified  to 
meet  "  pace  and  action  "  requirements  than  they  are  those  of  the 
high  stepping  classes  (Fig.  80),  Their  action  is  frequently  unbal- 
anced, being  deficient  in  hocks,  but  they  can  step  away. 


THE  HEAVY  HARNESS  BREEDS  111 

REVIEW 

1.  Describe  the  Norfolk  trotter  and  show  his  relation  to  the  Hackney 

and  the  Standardbred. 

2.  What  breed  characteristics  have  enabled  the  Hackney  to  win  suprem- 

acy in  the  show  ring? 

3.  Name  a  noted  Hackney  sire. 

4.  Explain  fully  the  meaning  of  the  tenii  "  demi  sang." 

5.  Aecomit  for  the  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  representatives  of  the 

French  Coach  breed  imported  to  this  country,  also  among  their 
get. 

6.  What  are  the  most  commendable  features  of  the  German   Coach 

hoi-se? 

7.  To  what  sort  of  mares  should  coach  stallions  be  mated  ? 

8.  What  was  the  original  pai'entage  of  the  Yorkshire  Coach  horse? 

9.  Describe  the  origin  of  the  Orloff. 

10.  What  is  the  so-called  American  Carriage  Horse  ? 


^^ 


CHAPTER  IX 
AMERICAN  BREEDS 

Native  American  Horses. — Conditions  in  this  country  have 
proven  most  congenial  for  the  production  of  horses,  yet  there 
were  none  inhabiting  this  continent  when  it  was  discovered  by 
Columbus.  This  is  all  the  more  remarkable  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  fossil  remains  of  a  prehistoric  horse  have  been  found  in 
abundance  in  different  parts  of  this  country.  It  is  believed  that 
the  horses  originally  on  this  continent  passed  over  what  is  now 
Behring  Straits,  into  Asia,  during  the  early  ages. 

The  restocking  of  America  Avas  coincident  with  its  explora- 
tion and  colonization.  Columbus  landed  horses  on  his  second 
ex^^edition,  but  it  is  not  knoAAii  whether  or  not  they  ever  reached 
the  mainland.  The  horses  brought  by  Cortcz,  in  his  conquest 
of  Mexico,  in  1519,  are  credited  with  being  the  first  to  gain 
American  soil.  In  1527,  Cabeza  de  Vaca  brought  horses  to  St. 
Augustine,  Florida,  which  were  aftenvard  liberated.  De  Soto's 
expedition  was  equipped  with  horses  when  he  discovered  the 
Mississippi  in  1541,  although  the  majority  of  them  were  killed 
for  their  flesh  after  De  Soto's  death.  These  Spanish  horses  were 
derivatives  from  a  Barb  foundation  with  which  Spain  was  orig- 
inally stocked. 

Horses,  presumably  of  the  old  Xorman  and  Breton  stock, 
were  taken  by  the  French  into  l^ova  Scotia  in  1004,  and  four 
years  later  were  introduced  into  Canada.  One  stallion  and  six 
mares.  Thoroughbred,  reached  Virginia  witli  the  English  in 
1607.  In  1625  Dutch  horses,  possibly  the  black  trotter  of  Fries- 
land,  arrived  at  I^ew  E'etherlands.  In  1629  the  first  horses  to 
inhabit  Xew  England  came  with  the  English  to  Boston.  This 
was  the  composite  origin  of  the  American  horse  stock,  out  of 
which  our  breeds  have  been  evolved. 

As  early  as  1678  the  descendants  of  horses  that  had  escaped 
from,  or  were  liberated  by  the  early  Spanish  expeditions,  were 
ranging  wild  in  gi-eat  bands  over  the  prairies  of  this  continent. 

The  American  breeds  of  horses  are  the  Standardbred,  includ- 
112 


AMERICAN  BREEDS 


113 


ing  the  Morgan,  and  the  Saddle  horse.  The  first  pure  breed  to 
gain  a  foothold  here  was  the  Thoroughbred,  and  naturally  the 
Thoroughbred  has  been  the  chief  contributor  in  the  foundation 
of  the  American  breeds. 

STANDARDBRED 

This  breed  is  so  named  because  the  members  are  bred  to  a 
standard  of  speed  performance,  that  is,  one  mile  in  2.o0  or  better 


WJ 


Fig.  si. — A  Standardbred  stall 


ion,  a  leading  sire  of  the  breed. 


trotting,  2.25  or  better  pacing.  In  fact,  the  question  has  been 
raised  whetlier  or  not  the  Standardbred  fulfils  the  requirements 
which  constitute  a  breed,  as  long  as  individuals  may  become 
standard  by  performance,  though  not  by  breeding.  It  is  prob- 
able that  in  the  very  near  future  the  rule  admitting  horses  to 
registry  by  standard  performance  alone  Avill  be  rescinded. 


114  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

Origin. — Orange  County,  N^ew  York,  was  the  original  seat 
of  this  breed;  then  Kentucky,  and  eventually  the  States  in 
general,  California  in  particular.  The  chief  interest  in  trotters 
centered  about  ^ew  York  City,  where  the  improvement  in  the 
construction  of  roads  gave  a  great  stimulus  to  road  driving.- 
Their  foundation  blood  lines  were  laid  in  Orange  County. 

The  two  most  notable  foundation  sires  in  America  were  im- 
ported Messenger  and  Justin  Morgan. 

Messenger  was  a  gray  Thoroughbred,  six  generations  re- 
moved from  the  Darley  Arabian,  imported  from  England,  as  an 
eight-year-old  in  1788.  He  stood  most  of  his  life  about  Xew 
York  and  Philadelphia,  where  he  left  numerous  progeny.  Al- 
though himself  a  running  race  horse,  brought  to  this  country  for 
the  improvement  of  runners,  he  soon  became  noted  as  a  sire  of 
trotters,  and  upon  his  trotting  sons  and  grandsons,  daughters 
and  granddaughters^  the  Standardbred  is  based.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  the  fact  that  the  horse  stock  about  New  York 
was  descended  from  the  horses  brought  over  by  the  Dutch,  and 
that  a  family  of  trotters  were  native  to  Friesland,  would  account 
for  so  many  of  the  get  of  Messenger  being  trotters.  The  infer- 
ence is  that  Messenger  imparted  the  speed  and  stamina,  while  his 
get  derived  their  instinct  to  trot  from  their  Dutch-bred  dams. 
The  most  notable  of  Messenger's  sons  was  Mambrino,  the  sire  of 
Mambrino  Paymaster  and  Abdallah.  Mambrino  Paymaster  in 
turn  sired  Mambrino  Chief,  from  whom  the  Mambrino  family 
of  trotters  and  the  Chief  family  of  Saddle  horses  of  Kentucky 
are  descended.  Abdallah  sired  Hambletonian  10,  the  most 
conspicuous  sire  of  the  Standardbred. 

Hambletonian  lo,  or  Eysdyk's  Hambletonian,  is  regarded 
as  the  progenitor  of  tlie  Standardbred,  so  far  as  one  individ- 
ual can  claim  that  distinction  (Fig.  82).  He  was  foaled 
tho  property  of  Jonas  Seeley  near  Chester,  Orange  County, 
'New  York,  in  1849,  but  soon  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  man 
he  made  famous,  Wm.  M.  Rysdyk.  iJ^otwithstanding  the  fact 
that  his  stud  fees  later  amounted  to  $184,725.00,  Rysdyk  dick- 
ered a  long  time  before  the  purchase  price  of  $125.00  for  the 
mare  and  foal  was  agreed  upon.  Tliis  would  indicate  that  neither 
party  to  the  transaction  had  any  conception  of  the  ultimate  value 


AMERICAN  BREEDS 


115 


and  importance  of  this  colt.  Attention  was  first  directed,  to 
Hambletonian  by  his  gelded  son  Dexter,  who  in  1864,  1865, 
1866,  and  1867  defeated  the  best  horses  of  the  day,  George 
Wilkes,  George  M.  Patchen,  Goldsmith  Maid,  Lady  Thome, 
Flora  Temple,  and  others.  The  year  that  Dexter  began  his 
sensational  performances  Hambletonian  bred  217  mares  and 
got  148  colts ;  subsequently  he  was  so  extensively  patronized  tliat 


^je<y^^s^*K3:..^i9^^^ 


Fig.  82. — Hambletonian  lU,  at  23  years  of  age. 


he  commanded  a  service  fee  of  $500.00.  It  need  not  necessarily 
detract  from  his  name  and  fame  to  state  that  no  horse  ever  had 
such  an  opportunity  in  the  stud.  It  was  thus  that  he  became  the 
founder  of  the  breed,  being  the  sire  of  1321  colts.  He  died  in 
1876,  and  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  (Fig.  83). 

Hambletonian's  best  son  was  George  Wilkes,  a  small  but 
powerfully  made  bro^vn  horse,  foaled  1856,  out  of  Dolly  Spanker, 
a  good  road  mare  of  untraced  ancestry.  George  Wilkes  was  both 
a  race  horse  and  a  sire;  after  a  moic  remarkable  racing  career 


116 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


he  was  retired  to  the  stud,  first  in  Xew  York,  later  in  Kentucky. 
His  prepotency  was  marvelous  and  is  still  breeding  on.  To 
designate  a  horse  as  of  Wilkes'  breeding  means  little  in  view  of 
the  numerous  ramifications  of  this  family. 

George  Wilkes'  best  sons  were  Brown  Wilkes,  Alcantara, 
Alcyone,  Bourbon  Wilkes,  Baron  Wilkes,  Jaybird,  Kentucky 
Wilkes,  Onward,  Patelien  Wilkes,  Bed  Wilkes,  Simmons,  Wilkes 
Boy,  and  Gambetta  Wilkes. 


Fig.  83.  — Monunieut  over  iimve  of   Hainbletonian   10  at  Chester,  N.  Y.,  located  on  a  lot 
in  outskirts  of  town  with  a  house  on  either  side. 


Other  sons  of  Ilambletonian  were  Alexander's  Abdallah, 
Messenger  Duroc,  Belmont,  Electioneer,  Almont,  Volunteer, 
Aberdeen,  Happy  ]\[edium  (sire  of  Xancy  Hanks),  Harold  (sire 
of  Maud  S.),  Dictator,  and  Strathmore. 

The  dam  of  Ilambletonian  10  was  the  Charles  Kent  mare  of 
ordinary  road  ability,  sired  by  Bellfounder,  called  at  that  time  a 
Norfolk  trotter,  but  in  the  light  of  present  knowledge  a  Hackney. 


AMERICAN  BREEDS  117 

The  Blood  Line. — The  following  arrangement  of  blood  lines 
is  interesting,  in  view,  first,  of  tlie  prevalence  of  the  trotting 
instinct  in  both,  and  second,  of  the  successful  manner  in  v\^hich 
Standardbreds  and  Hackneys  nick. 


Darley  Arabian 

Flying  Childers 

Blaze. 

I 


/iyvU^ 


Shales  Sampson 

Driver  Engineer 

I  .  t 

Jenkinson's  Fireaway  Mambrino 

I  I 

Wroots'  Pretender  Messenger  (Imported) 

I  I 

Stevens'  Bellfounder  Mambrino 


Jary's  Bellfounder  (Imported)^_^-^Abdailah — Mambrino  Paymaster 
Chas.  Kent  mare.-"""''^ 


r Mambrino  Chief— | 

Mambrino  family  of     Chief  family  of 
trotters  saddle  horses. 

Hambletonian  10 

Other  families  that  have  been  interwoven  into  the  fabric,  as 
it  were,  of  the  Standardbred  are : 

The  Clays,  descended  from  Henry  Clay,  wdiose  ancestry  is 
shown  below. 

Imported  Grand  Bashaw  (Barb  from  Tripoli  1820) 
Young  Bashaw 

Andrew  Jackson 

Henry  Clay 

The  Mambrinos  descended  from  Mambrino  Chief,  who  sired 
Mambrino  Patchen,  and  he  in  turn  sired  Mambrino  King. 

The  Pilots  descended  from  Pilot,  Jr.,  the  son  of  a  Canadian 
pacer,  so-called,  and  noted  as  a  brood  mare  sire.  His  best 
daughter  was  Miss  Russell,  the  dam  of  Maud  S.,  Nutwood,  Lord 
Russell,  and  many  others. 

The  Hals,  the  most  distinguished  and  exclusively  pacing 
family,  descended  from  KittreFs  Tom  Hal,  a  roan,  stallion 
brought  from  Canada.      His  get,   in   Tennessee,   founded   this 


118 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


Fig.  84. — Green  Mountain  Maid  in  1873. 


Fig.  85. — Inscription  on  monument  of  Green  Mountain  Maid  at  Stony  Ford. 


AMERICAN  BREEDS 


119 


pacing  family  through  Tom  Hal,  Jr.,  or  Gibson's  Tom  Hal,  the 
sire  of  Brown  Hal,  who  begot  Star  Pointer  and  a  numerous 
progeny  of  Hals,  all  very  fast  pacers.  In  Kentucky  the  Hals 
are  identified  with  the  foundation  of  the  Saddle  breed. 

The  greatest  brood  mare  in  the  foundation  of  the  Standard- 
bred  was  Green  Mountain  Maid  (Figs.  84  and  85),  daughter  of 
Harry  Clay,  and  dam  of  Electioneer,  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous sires  of  the  breed.  The  greatest  pacing  dam  was 
Sweepstakes. 


Fig.  86. 


-An  "ideal  representative"  of  the  Standardbred.     In  addition  to  2.10  speed,  he 
possesses  beauty  of  form,  finish,  style,  and  intelligence. 


Demand  for  Standardbred  Horses. — The  popularity  of  har- 
ness racing  and  road  driving  has  enabled  this  breed  to  make 
remarkable  j^rogress  in  a  half  century.  They  are  now  the  recog- 
nized exponents  of  the  light  harness  type,  and  are  exported  in 
large  numbers,  especially  to  Russia  and  Austria.  In  fact,  the 
rate  at  which  some  of  the  best  stallions  and  mares  are  being  taken 
abroad  indicates  a  lack  of  the  true  constructive  breeder's  spirit, 
and  forebodes  ill  for  the  future  of  the  breed.     Unfortunately, 


IIM 


IN  ri'lS  AND  lUJI'll'ihS 


s|)('(mI  |h'I  roniiMiice  mIoiic  luis  lu*(M»  lli(^  stnndjifd  ol  sclcci  imi,  mimI 
while  Mllniiimciils  in  lliis  line  Iimv(>  Immmi  j^tcmI,  llicrc  is  :i  woeful 
l;ick  el"  uiiiroiMiiil  V  niiioiii;'  Irollrrs.  'TIicv  ('oiiie  ill  nil  s1iii|M'S, 
sizes,  :iii(l  eitldi's.  Aliioiii;-  llie  repi-eseiil  al  i\'es  of  llie  lu'eetl  \\\'{\ 
iimnv  ideiil  iiuli\  i«lu:ils  willi  a  wide  I'liiii^v  »d'  :idM|>laltilil_v  (  b'i^\ 
S('»)   |()  almost   aii\    kind  of  ser\iee,  l)ul    l<><i  iiiaiiv  are  ollierwise. 

1 


I  u..   .s/.       A    li.  hau.l.    rJ(Hi  p.-uiHl  .slaiuiaia  i-  ,  i,.,  m.i  ,   u  !,...,•  ,'i    .h.-   iIm-  ,■, 
liDi.srs  oit  tlu'  iimjoiily  ul  liirms  wiiliiu  ii  wulc  liuluii  ol  Ins  Imint' 


The  shew  riiii;'  has  serx'ed  a  eoimiieiidahle  |>iir|tese  wherein 
the  race  I  rack  has  faileil  in  lliis  eonneelion,  and  it  is  i;ral  i  t'vini^ 
to  s(>e  a  nniforni  slandai'd  of  exeellenei"  ii'radnallv  Immiii;-  evolved. 

The  versatility  of  the  Standardbred  is  demonsl  raled  hv  ihe 
fnef  that  llu>  ehainition  lieavv  harness  horse  of  ihis  eounlrv, 
Nala,  ami  the  champion  saddle  niar(>  (d'  a  few  v(>ars  hack.  Miss 
Anne,  were  holh  «d'  this  hreediiio',  wliil(>  in  iiiaiiv  parts  of  the 
Masl,  hii«',  stout,  i^-ood  headed  trotters  are  doino-  the  farm  work 
(Fig.  STV      Many  Imntei-s  are  all  m-  part  Stamlardhre<l,  and  this 


1 


AMKJUCJAN  HKKKDH  J2I 

blood  HcctuH  Uy  fn;  tiu>H\,  i'uvorcd  for  i\\<:  f)n>'liif'J  Io»i  of  aririy  n;- 
HioiiiitH  \)y  i\i(>H()  wlio  i\rc  w(rll  infonncd.  'Dicrc  }in;  ^r(!}it  [H)HHi- 
((ilitir'H  in  tlif  \)V('j'<]  wfiicJi  liavf;  \><'(tu  ovi^rlookcd  in  ;in  ill  Jidvi-itrl 
effort,  to  rjii-r-  vucc  }ir>rH(tH  uu(\  nicAi  lior.scjH  only. 

Rules  of  Eligibility. — TIk;  Hi^nificancc!  of  tho  rninic.  Stanrj- 
anlf>n;H  in  nuido  (•U-nr  by  a  cr>n.Hi(l(;ration  of  tiie.  rulcH  of  cli^i- 
bilit,y  t//  n'^i.Hlry  in  tfir;  Ani(!ri('an  Trotting  itf^i.stfr. 

'/'Ar^   'rrotliruj  Hlfindard. — Wbfti   ;ui   ;inin)al   rncctH  tJicHc   rc- 
qnircnicntH  ;in'l  i-;  duly  nr^int/'rcd  it,  h[i}jII  b(;  afvcptf*!  ms  a  Stand 
ardbnd  trotter: 

I.  TIkj  [jro^eny  *)f' a  n'^'iHtci'f'd  Ht,;i,n'l}ir<l  trotting'"  lior-r-  and  n 
rc^iHt(!r(;d  Htand;ird  \v<t\\i\i<2-  imwc. 

(/ 2.  A  Htallion  ninrd  by  ji  rc^ist('n;d  Htandard  trotting  borne, 
provifbrd  liiHrbini  Jind  ^'^nindani  were  Hired  by  registered  Htandard 
trotfin;r  Iiothc^h,  and  be  bini-elf  b;i-,  n  trotting*;  record  of  'Z.'.U)  nwd 
\h  tbe  .sirr;  of  tbree  trotteiv-  uitb  rer^ordn  of  2j..'iO,  from  difbrf-nt, 
rnar(;.s. 

/  *{.  A  mare  vvlio.se  .sire;  in  a  regiHtered  Htandfi rd  trotting  bors(% 
and  w'fioHc;  darn  and  ^Tandain  wen?  Hiri(;d  \>y  re^i,Ht(;rod  Htandard 
trotting'  \\orHCH,  prrjvirjed  H[)(r  berHelf  ban  a  trotting  record  of  2.-'f() 
or  is  tbe  djini  of  one  trolt(-r  witb  u  reeoni  of  2.'>0. 

/  4.  A  mare  sintd  by  a  registered  .standard  trottifi^^  bor-f,  pr<^ 
vidrfd  hIk*  is  tbe  dam  of  two  trr)t,t/;rH  witb  rrrr^ords  of  2.'>(). 

r>.  A  mure  .-^ired  by  a  re^i.ntered  Htfindji rd  trotting  bor.se,  [)ro- 
vided  ber  first,  seeond,  and  tbird  dams  an-  ejieb  Hii'(;d  f^y  a  re^JH- 
tered  standard  trotting  bor.se. 

7'lif'  /^aciuf J  Standard. — Wb(;n  Jin  jinifnMl  incciH  i]\('M<',  r('j\\\\rcr 
ments  find  is  duly  nj^istered,  it  sbiill  be  }ieer-|, t(;d  jis  a  Standard- 
l>red  [);ieer: 

1.  TIh'  progeny  of  a  ro^istx-rrrd  Ht;ind;irrl  ]mcj})^  bor.se  }ind  a. 
regist^Ted  standard  })aein^  mare. 

2.  A  tttallion  si nrd  by  a  rr^^islered  stMiidurd  pjiein^  bor.sf;, 
firmidefj  iii-,  dfim  jind  ^nn\(\ntn  worr;  Hired  by  rf;^Ht/;r(»d  Htandard 
f)aein^'  liorses,  {inrj  lie  bifnself  bas  a  pjjejn^'  rer^ord  of  2.25,  and 
is  tbe.  sin;  of  tbn^*  f)ae,ers  witb  reer)rds  of  2.25,  from  diffrtre.if 
rnaroH. 

/  3.  A  marf;  wbose  sire  is  a  r(;^istered  standard  \m('An^  fiorsr; 
and  wb^iHO  dam  anrl  grandam  werr5  nircd  by  rr^^isterfid  ntandanl 


122  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

pacing  horses,  provided  she  herself  has  a  pacing  record  of  2.25, 
or  is  the  dam  of  one  pacer  with  a  record  of  2.25. 

4.  A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse,  pro- 
vided she  is  the  dam  of  two  pacers  vnth  records  of  2.25. 

5.  A  mare  sired  bj  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse,  pro- 
vided her  first,  second,  and  third  dams  are  each  sired  by  a  reg- 
istered standard  pacing  horse. 

6.  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse  out  of 
a  registered  standard  pacing  mare,  or  of  a  registered  standard 
pacing  horse  out  of  a  registered  standard  trotting  mare. 

Speed  Records. — The  follomng  are  the  record  perfonn- 
ances  to  date  for  one  mile  (from  "  Horseman's  Annual  ")  : 

Gelding,   trotter "Uhlan" 1.583^ 

Gelding,   pacer ''Prince  Albert" 1.59^ 

Stallion,    trotter "The  Harvester" 2.01 

Stallion,    pacer "Dan  Patch" 1.55M 

Mare,       trotter "Lou  Dillon" 1.58^ 

^Z:   ^^S?;::::::::::::::::"EatMaudc"}'^------  ^-ooj^ 

Yearling,  trotter "Miss  Stokes"  filly 2.19M 

Yearling,  trotter "Wilbur  Lou"  colt 2,193^ 

Yearling,  pacer "Present  Queen"  filly 2.20}4 

Yearling,  pacer "Frank  Perry"  colt 2.15 

Yearhng,  pacer "Rollo"  gelding 2.283^ 

Stallion,    trotting  to  wagon "John  A.  McKerron" 2.10 

Stalhon,   pacing  to  wagon "Dan  Patch" 1.57^^ 

Mare,       trotting  to  wagon " Lou  Dillon" 2.00 

Mare,       pacing  to  wagon   " Aileen  Wilson" 2.0434 

Gelding,   trotting  to  wagon "Uhlan" 2.00 

Gelding,   pacing  to  wagon " Little  Boy" 2.01 14 

Team,       trotting {  lii^ui^""^"  I ^.07^ 

Team,       pacing {;;?atTaud  C'^'' } 2.02M 

The  Light  Harness  Type.— The  Standardbred  (Fig.  81) 
represents  so  ti-uly  the  light  harness  type  that  his  detailed  de- 
scription would  be  a  duplication  of  that  already  given  under  the 
light  harness  division,  in  the  classification  of  horses  (see 
Chapter  V). 

THE  MORGANS 

The  propriety  of  designating  the  Morgan  a  breed  is  ques- 
tionable. To  be  sure,  there  is  a  studbook  maintained  which  has 
been  duly  recognized,  but  the  requirements  for  registry  are  so 


AMERICAN  BREEDS  123 

open  as  to  include  many  individuals  that  could  not  fulfil  the 
specifications  of  a  breed.  The  important  part  played  by  the 
Morgan  horse  in  the  establishment  and  development  of  tlie  Stand- 
ardbred  and  the  American  Saddle  horse  is  sufiiciently  important, 
however,  and  his  characteristics  distinctive  enough,  to  justify  his 
being  considered  apart  from  the  other  breeds  with  which  he  has 
been  closely  identified. 

Justin  Morgan  shares  honors  with  Messenger  as  a  founda- 
tion sire  of  the  Standardbred,  and  tlie  correction  and  verification 
of  pedigrees  of  noted  sires  and  dams  have  increased  the  credit  due 
him.  He  was  a  remarkable  individual  foaled  at  Springfield, 
Mass.,  in  1789,  and  lived  to  be  thirty-t\vo  years  old.  He  was  a 
small  horse,  about  14—2  hands  high  and  950  pounds  weight.  Of 
him  wonderful  performances  of  endurance,  speed,  pulling  power, 
and  intelligence  are  recorded.  His  individuality  was  no  more 
striking  than  the  prepotency  with  which  he  impressed  his  get. 
Had  the  Morgan  blood  been  kept  pure,  there  can  be  little  ques- 
tion of  its  having  ultimately  fulfilled  all  the  requirements  for 
recognition  as  a  breed.  Even  the  wide  dissemination  of  the  blood 
has  not  resulted  in  the  complete  obliteration  of  the  Morgan 
character,  which  may  be  discerned  though  but  a  fractional  part  of 
Morgan  inheritance  is  represented. 

The  breeding  of  the  original  Morgan  horse  has  never  been 
satisfactorily  established,  as  the  horse  himself  and  those  who 
knew  of  him  were  dead  before  any  effort  was  made  to  trace  his 
ancestry.  Colonel  Joseph  Battell,  who  has  devoted  much  time 
to  an  investigation  of  this  matter,  has  given  the  sire  as  a  Thor- 
oughbred called  Beautiful  Bay  and  the  dam  as  a  member  of  the 
Wildair  family  of  Thoroughbreds.  Such  breeding  is  not  indi- 
cated, however,  by  the  descriptions  of  the  horse  with  which  we 
are  furnished,  although  the  Thoroughbreds  of  his  time  Avere 
more  like  him  than  are  the  Thoroughbreds  of  the  present.  A 
Dutch  origin  similar  to  that  of  the  I^orfolk  trotter  has  been  sug- 
gested and  does  not  seem  unreasonable,  since  Dutch  blood  was 
available  at  the  time  of  his  breeding  and  he  more  closely  re- 
sembles in  type  the  old-fashioned  Hackney  than  any  other  breed. 
The  Thoroughbred  ancestry,  however,  is  the  one  usually  ac- 
cepted, though  not  altogether  satisfactory. 


124 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


Sons  of  Justin  Morgan— The  three  most  notable  sons  of 
Justin  Morgan  were:  (1)  Bnllrush  Morgan,  the  descendants 
of  whom  are  especially  noted  for  their  size,  substance,  and  sound- 
ness, and  represented  by  the  Morrill  family;  (2)  Woodbury 
Morgan,  who  is  described  as  possessing  attractive  action  and 
spirit  and  ^\dio  was  the  progenitor  of  the  Gifford  and  Morgan 
Eagle  branches;  and  (3)  Shennan  Morgan,  from  whom  came,  in 


-r^t"^'.-^^ 


Fig.  88. — Original  photo  of  Ethan  Allen  made  in  1859.     It  shows  the  inaccuracy  of  some  of 
the  old  cuts  alleged  to  be  true  likenesses  of  this  hor.se. 

successive  generations,  the  three  greatest  horses  of  their  days. 
Black  Hawk  (Vermont  or  Hill's),  Ethan  Allen  (Fig.  88),  and 
Daniel  Lambert.  In  Daniel  Lambert  the  type  underwent  some 
alteration,  as  the  blood  lines  of  the  two  foundation  American 
sires  were  brought  together,  Fanny  Cook,  the  dam  of  Lambert, 
being  by  Abdallah,  grandson  of  Messenger  and  sire  of  Hamble- 
tonian. 

Morgan  Blood  in  Other  Breeds. — With  the  development  of 
trotting  speed  and  the  increasing  popularity  of  the  Hambleton- 


AMERICAN  BREEDS  125 

ians,  the  prestige  which  the  Morgans  had  enjoyed  as  road 
horses  was  shattered.  Morgan  mares  were  mated  with,  sons  and 
grandsons  of  Hambletonian,  and  later  those  of  Denmark,  to  such 
an  extent  that  for  years  the  breed,  in  its  original  purity  and  type, 
has  been  threatened  with  extinction.  To  this  very  fact,  however, 
may  be  attributed,  in  some  part  at  least,  the  merit  that  has  been 
attained  in  the  Standardbrcd  and  the  American  Saddle  horse. 
A  study  of  the  blood  lines  of  a  great  many  of  the  most  conspicu- 


FiG.  89. — A  Morgan  siiillion,  showing  the  size,  form,  and  character 
typical  of  thia  family  of  horses. 

ous  representatives  of  the  two  breeds  reveals  to  what  extent  the 
Morgan  has  been  incorporated,  especially  through  foundation 
mares.    The  blood  has,  therefore,  been  spent  rather  than  lost. 

A  description  of  Justin  Morgan  is  typical  of  his  descendants 
(Fig.  89).  lie  was  brown,  slightly  over  14  hands  in  height,  950 
pounds  in  weight,  very  compactly  made,  with  a  short,  strong 
back,  round,  deep  rib,  broad  loin,  and  strong  coupling;  a  breedy 
head,  proudly  carried,  rather  heavy  neck,  with  prominent  crest, 
short  legs  well  set  and  of  unusual  substance ;  and  an  airy,  busy, 
but  not  high  way  of  going.    Bay,  bro^vn,  and  black  colors  prevail 


126 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


in  the  breed  outside  the  Lambert  familj,  where  chestnut  with  a 
light  sprinkling  of  white  predominates. 

Improving  the  Breed. — The  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  has  undertaken  to  assemble  enough  representative 
Morgans  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  stud,  the  objecc  of  which  shall 
be  the  preservation  of  the  stock  and  improvement  in  the  line  of 
a  more  approved  type,  better  calculated  to  meet  modern  demand, 


1-  iG.  UO. — General  Gates,  at  the  head  of  the  gov^ernment  Morgan  stud. 


especially  in  the  matter  of  size  (Fig.  90).  We  are  reminded, 
in  this  connection,  of  the  statement  that  when  an  Arab  exceeds 
14—2  he  ceases  to  be  an  Arab.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  it 
may  be  necessaiy  to  sacrifice  some  of  the  most  distinctly  Morgan 
characters  in  order  to  attain  the  desired  size,  and  in  view  of  the 
active  demand  for  cobs,  which  old-fashioned  Morgans  are,  the 
wisdom  of  such  a  course  is  not  altogether  apparent. 

The  Morgan  Horse  Club,  recently  organized,  has  inaugu- 
rated an  active  campaign  in  the  interest  of  the  Morgan  horse. 


AMERICAN  BREEDS  127 

At  recent  Vermont  State  fairs  and  ITational  horse  shows  some 
very  creditable  classes  of  Morgans  have  been  exhibited  under  the 
auspices  of  this  club. 


,-,A/sM^ 


n^izi 


y  ^  -   'THE  AMERICAN-  SADDLE  HOESE 

The  development  of  this  breed  has  been  parallel  in  many 
respects  with  that  of  the  American  trotter.  Both  are  the  result 
of  a  Thoroughbred  top  cross  on  what  might  be  termed  a  native 
mare  foundation,  and  in  each  case  the  descendants  of  one  indi- 
vidual have  constituted  a  family  which  has  dominated  the  breed. 
Their  respective  histories  are  also  more  or  less  contemporaneous. 
Denmark,  the  Thoroughbred  whose  progeny  founded  the  Saddle 
breed,  was  foaled  in  1839,  while  Messenger  reached  this  country 
in  1788  and  his  great  grandson  Hambletonian  was  foaled  in 
1849. 

Evolution  of  the  Saddle  Horse — The  chief  differences  which 
influenced  the  evolution  of  the  Saddle  horse  and  the  trotter  are 
those  which  concerned  the  native  mares  and  the  ends  in  view  of 
the  breeders.  The  original  American  Saddle  horse  was  born,  of 
necessity,  on  the  frontier  where  horses'  backs  afforded  the  chief 
means  of  transportation.  The  easy,  lateral,  ambling  gait  was 
cultivated,  and  those  horses  which  showed  greatest  aptitude  in 
this  direction  were  selected  for  breeding.  On  the  other  hand, 
road  and  vehicle  construction  progressed  most  rapidly  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  large  Eastern  cities,  hence  the  breeding  of  the 
trotter  or  road  horses  centered  around  ITew  York  City  and  Phila- 
delphia, and  the  foundation  was  laid  in  mares  which  had  proven 
themselves  best  adapted  to  trotting  in  harness.  While  horses 
were  more  extensively  used  for  riding  than  for  driving  purposes 
in  this  country  during  the  earlier  period,  the  Saddle  breed,  in 
its  present  degree  of  development,  is  of  more  recent  origin  than 
the  Standardbred.  Furthermore,  selection  in  the  case  of  the 
Saddle  bred  horse  has  not  been  to  a  standard  of  performance 
alone,  but  ideals  in  type,  conformation,  and  quality  as  well  have 
been  sought  and  are  as  clearly  ma-rked  in  the  prepotency  of  the 
foundation  families  as  is  performance. 


128  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

Foundation  Stock. — In  order  to  establish  a  definite  begin- 
ning, the  American  Saddle  Horse  Breeders'  Association  orig- 
inally accepted  these  sires  as  constituting  foundation  stock : 

Denmark  (Thoroughbred)  by  Imported  Hedgeford. 

John  Dillard,  by  Indian  Chief  (Canadian). 

Tom  Hal  (Imported  from  Canada). 

CabelPs  Lexington,  by  Gist's  Black  Hawk  (Morgan). 

Coleman's  Eureka  (Thoroughbred  and  Morgan). 

Van  Meter's  Waxy  (Thoroughbred). 

Stump-Tlie-Dealer  (  Thoroughbred  ) . 

Peter's  Halcorn. 

Davy  Crockett. 

Pat  Cleburne,  by  Benton's  Gray  Diomcd. 

Influence  of  the  Thoroughbred. — The  extent  to  which  the 
Thoroughbred  has  been  involved  in  the  origin  and  development 
of  the  Saddle  breed  is  shown  by  the  following  census  of  the 
breeding  of  all  individuals  registered  in  Vol.  I  of  the  studbook: 

Thoronghbred 3 

50       per  cent.  Thoroughbred  blood -10 

25       per  cent.  Thoroughbred  blood 290 

12*73    per  cent.  Thoroughbred  blood 343 

6M:    per  cent.  Thoroughbred  blood 152 

3       per  cent.  Thoroughbred  blood 36 

Uncertain    203 

Denmark  was  a  Thoroughbred,  by  Imported  Hedgeford,  of 
whom  little  else  is  recorded,  foaled  in  Fayette  County,  Kentucky, 
in  1839.  He  never  achieved  great  fame  as  a  race  horse,  although 
it  is  claimed  that  his  races  were  characterized  by  unusual  game- 
ness  and  stamina.  He  had  a  numerous  progeny,  the  most  notable 
of  which  was  Gaines'  Denmark,  whose  dam,  the  Stevenson  mare, 
w^as  a  great  natural  ambler,  representing  the  then  common  stock 
of  the  country  and  believed,  by  some,  to  be  of  greater  foundation 
importance  than  Denmark  himself. 

Gaines'  Denmark  is  considered  the  founder  of  tht  breed, 
although  other  lines  have  since  been  developed  from  which  good 


AMERICAN  BREEDS 


129 


results  have  been  secured,  either  independently  or  in  combina- 
tion with  the  line  of  Denmark.  These  blood  lines  are  shown 
below. 

i Gaines'  Denmark  61 
Polly  Hopkins  46 
by  Cockspur. 


fRex  Denmark  840 
1884-1902 


Daughter  of. 


Lucy  Mack  2459. 


Black  Squirrel  58. 
1876-1898 


Star. 


Bourbon  Chief. 
No.  976  (S.). 


Harrison  Chief . 
No.  1606  (S.). 


Belle. 


Annie  C 


Wilson's  King. . 
No.  2196  (S.). 


By. 


fStar  of  the  West 


^Daughter  of 


fMohawk 


[Black  Eagle  74 
1869-1888 


MoUie  70 

Old  Star  Davis 


fKing  William  67 
IKitty  Richards  (th.) 

IGiltner's  Highlander 
Betty  69  by  McDonald 


Mollie /Sam    Martin's   Farmer 


Clark  Chief. 
No.  89. 


Lute  Boyd. 


\ 


fMambrino  Chief. 
J      No.  11. 


(Little  Nora. 

fjoe  Downing. 
No.  710. 

Eagle,     by 
1      Bruce. 


Robert 


Latham's  Denmark. 
No.  69  (S.). 


By. 


Harrison  Chief.  . 
No.  1606  (S.). 


{Washington  Denmark. 
No.  64  (S.). 
Queen. 
No.  48  (S.). 

[Bellfounder. 

f  Clark  Chief. 
I      No.  89. 

(Lute  Boyd. 

(Parsons'  Abdallah. 
By    Yellow    Jacket. 
No.  112  (S.). 

flndian  Chief. 
Richelieu No.  1718  (S.). 


Kentucky  Chief,  by 
Indian  Chief  No. 
1718  (S.). 

By  Salmon's  Glencoe 
(Th.). 


By. 


By. 


130  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

The  above  pedigrees  of  two  of  the  greatest  sires  of  the  breed 
represent  the  two  lines  of  breeding,  the  former  being  a  strongly 
bred  Denmark,  while  the  latter  has  a  combination  of  the  blood 
of  Mambrino  Chief,  Gaines'  Denmark,  Edwin  Foi-rest,  and 
Black  Hawk  through  Harrison  Chief,  Latham's  Denmark 
(grandson  of  Gaines'  Denmark)  and  Indian  Chief.  The  pedi- 
gree of  Bourbon  King  also  shows  a  degree  of  close  breeding  which 
is  rather  typical.  The  Chief  family  which  Bourbon  King  rep- 
resents are  the  principal  contemporaries  of  the  Denmarks. 

Other  prominent  sires  are  Highland  Denmark  and  Chester 
Dare,  both  by  Black  Squirrel  and  out  of  daughters  of  Dave  Akin, 
Montgomery  Chief,  by  Bourbon  Chief,  Wilson's  King,  by  Har- 
rison Chief,  and  Wyatt's  Red  Cloud,  by  Indian  Chief,  the  latter 
two  being  more  particularly  the  sires  of  harness  horses. 

Three  of  the  greatest  producing  mares  are  (1)  Xannie  Gar- 
ret, by  Dave  Akin,  (2)  Annie  C,  by  "Wilson's  King,  and  (3) 
Little  Kate,  the  dam  of  four  of  the  best  horses  showTi  in  1913 — 
Kentucky's  Choice,  Kentucky's  Best,  Kentucky's  Selection,  and 
Undulata  Queen,  all  by  My  Own  Kentucky. 

The  chief  centres  of  Saddle  horse  breeding  are  the  central 
counties  of  Kentucky  and  the  region  about  Columbia  and  Mexico, 
Missouri. 

The  War  a  Setback. — The  Civil  War  caused  a  serious  set- 
back to  the  progress  of  the  Saddle  horse  breed,  all  available 
mounts  being  pressed  into  ser\dce,  many  of  w^hich  were  sacri- 
ficed, while  others  were  kept  out  of  breeding  for  a  considerable 
period.  Some  of  the  most  noted  stallions  of  the  breed  served 
as  officers'  mounts  during  the  Civil  War.  This  breed  also  suf- 
fered from  the  increased  popularity  of  the  Standardbred  during 
the  period  subsequent  to  the  war.  Many  of  the  best  Saddle  bred 
mares  were  mated  with  Standardbred  stallions.  The  present 
popularity  of  the  Saddle  horse  has  brought  this  breed  into  a 
more  conspicuous  position  than  it  has  ever  before  occupied. 

Characteristics. — The  Saddle  horse  is  characterized  by  being 
rather  up-standing,  possessed  of  a  most  beautifully  molded  and 
set  head  and  neck,  a  very  smoothly  turned  form,  short  back,  level 
croup,  and  high  set  tail  (Fig.  91),  From  an  artistic  point  of 
view,  he  is  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of  all  horses,  being  the 


AMERICAN  BREEDS  131 

extreme  embodiment  of  quality  and  finisli,  an  ideal  which  has 
been  fostered  by  the  so-called  "  model ''  classes  of  Southern  shows. 
Some  have  been  bred  so  very  fine,  however,  as  to  be  markedly  de- 
ficient in  substance.  His  flashy  way  of  going,  with  head  and 
tail  carried  high,  has  led  to  his  being  rather  contemptuously 
dubbed  a  ''  peacock  "  by  advocates  of  the  jolainer  but  perhaps 
more  substantial  part-bred  hack. 


Fig.  91.— An  American  Saddle  stallion,  showing  the  heautifully  molded  form,  the   stylish 
carriage  of  head  and  tail,  and  the  extreme  refinement  characteristic  of  this  breed. 

Colors  of  the  Saddle  horse  are  not  confined  mthin  any  limit, 
although  certain  families  are  very  uniform  in  the  transmission 
of  color,  especially  black  in  the  Denm arks  and  chestnut  in  the 
Chiefs  and  Kings.    Bay  is  also  common. 

Gaits. — Saddle  horses~wefe  previously  required  to  go  the  five 
gaits  in  order  to  qualify,  but  the  increased  demand  for  walk-trot- 


132  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

canter  horses  has  led  to  their  being  given  more  consideration  by 
Saddle  horse  breeders. 

Uses. — The  American  Saddle  horse  is  not  used  exclusively 
for  saddle  purposes.  Not  only  are  all  representatives  schooled 
to  go  in  harness,  but  some  of  our  best  American  bred  harness 
show  horses  have  been  produced  by  Saddle  breeding.  Also  some 
of  the  best  harness  horses  in  Kentucky  and  Missouri  have  event- 
ually become  winners  in  the  saddle  classes  of  the  greatest  Ameri- 
can shows.  Horses  of  this  breed  meet  the  present  demand  for 
combination  horses  more  naturally  than  those  of  any  other  breed. 
Their  intelligence,  instinctively  good  manners,  beautiful  con- 
formation, style,  and  finish,  as  well  as  their  dual  usefulness, 
enable  them  to  command  the  admiration  especially  of  those  who 
use  horses  for  the  horse's  sake.  Their  ability  to  go  the  slow  gaits 
has  also  led  to  their  being  used  for  riding  after  cattle  and  for 
general  business  saddle  purposes,  while  much  has  been  claimed 
for  them  as  cavalry  mounts  and  officers'  chargers.  Saddle-bred 
horses  make  most  acceptable  models  for  artists  and  sculptors. 

REVIEW 

1.  Review  the  original  stocking  of  this  continent  with  horses. 

2.  Why  is  the  foundation  of  the  Standardbred  laid  in  New  York,  that 

of  the  Saddle  horse   in   Kentucky? 

3.  Explain  the  relation  of  Messenger  to  the  Standardbred. 

4.  Identify  Hambletonian  10,  George  Wilkes,  Mambrino  Chief,  Green 

Mountain  Maid,  Henry  Clay. 

5.  Of  what  economic  importance  is  the  Standardbred? 

6.  In  what  respects  were  the  foundations  of  the  Standardbred  and  the 

American  Saddle  horse  similar  and  in  what  respects  did  they 
differ? 

7.  Describe  the  Denmark  branch  of  the  American  Saddle  breed. 

8.  What  of  the  outlook  for  the  American  Saddle  horse,  and  why? 

9.  Who  are  Bourbon  King,  Rex  McDonakl,  Cabell's  Lexington,  Har- 

rison Chief,  Little  Kate? 
10.  Describe   Justin   Morgan   and   explain   his   work   ay   a   foundation 
American  sire. 


CHAPTER  X 

PONY  BREEDS 

Here  are  discussed  the  Shetland  ponies,  the  Welsh  ponies, 
and  the  Hackney  ponies. 

THE  SHETLAND  PONY 

Environment  has  had  more  to  do  in  determining  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  Shetland  than  any  other  breed  of  horses.  It  has 
not,  however,  been  the  only  factor,  as  suggested  by  Darwin,  there 
having  been  a  separate  pony  race  indigenous  to  this  part  of  the 
world,  the  Equus  celticus  of  Ewart.  The  Shetland  Islands, 
situated  about  200  miles  off  the  north  coast  of  Scotland  and 
within  350  miles  of  the  Arctic  circle,  are  rough  and  unproduct- 
ive, and  the  people  poor.  Only  a  few  of  the  large  group  of 
islands  are  inhabited. 

This  breed  of  ponies  has  developed  under  the  most  adverse 
conditions,  being  close  companions  in  adversity  with  the  native 
crofters,  even  to  the  extent  of  sharing  their  huts  and  provisions. 
Their  most  characteristic  diminutive  size,  hardiness,  good  dis- 
positions, and  meagre  requirement-s  may  be  thus  accounted  for. 
Their  chief  occupation  in  the  islands  is  to  carry  peat  for  the  use 
of  the  crofters,  the  customary  load  consisting  of  from  120  to 
140  pounds,  which  is  packed  and  carried  over  the  roughest  and 
hardest  of  trails. 

The  first  real  impetus  to  their  systematic  breeding  came  from 
Scotland  and  England,  where  they  were  found  to  be  of  service 
in  working  out  the  shallow  veins  of  coal.  They  were  bred  most 
extensively  for  mine  use  by  the  Marquis  of  Londonderry.  It 
was  later  that  there  arose  an  active  demand  for  Shetlands  as 
children's  ponies,  and  it  is  claimed  this  call  came  chiefly  from 
Amenca. 

The  type  of  the  old  country  Shetland  is  that  of  a  draft  horse 
(Fig.  92)  in  miniature,  the  maximum  of  horse  power  in  the 
smallest  compass.     In  this  country  more  refinement,  in  keeping 

133 


134 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


with  saddle  and  harness  use,  is  desired  (Fig.  93).  A  slightly 
less  blocky  pony  not  so  low  do^vn  is  better  shaped  for  riding  and 
will  have  more  stride. 


Wtt'                  ■  *»*•  - 

^m       M- r-^5^*a^ 

■    -  '•^tMS^^^r   "^^^^^^MWBal^Bi^^^Sii^^"'~~^wi^^^^^ 

-•■;.:; 

M.  i^ii 

g„^ 

i 

Fig.  92. — The  old  country  idea  of  Shetland  type  is  a  miniature  draft  horst 


^>^     -y^--M 

tL 

Ik"  ^— 

Fig.   93. — A  Shetluud  siullion,  American  bred,  and  representative  of  tlie  t\"po  most  in  favor 

in  this  country. 


This  breed's  chief  asset  for  their  work  in  this  country  is 
their  patient,  docile,  and  demonstrative  disposition.  They  are 
generally  fearless  and  thoroughly  reliable  under  all  circum- 
stances.    They  do  not  have  an  ideal  saddle  conformation  nor 


PONY  BREEDS  135 

heads  and  necks  that  make  for  light  mouths,  but  the  notion  enter- 
tained by  some  that  they  are  bullish  and  wilful  is  largely  due  to 
the  fact  that,  being  naturally  tractable,  they  receive  but  the  most 
elementary  schooling. 

A  standard  height  of  42  inches  has  been  fixed  in  this  coun- 
try, with  a  proportionate  discount  up  to  46  inches.  If  in  excess 
of  this  they  are  disqualified. 

Colors. — Solid  colors,  black  or  a  cinnamon  brown  being  most 
typical,  are  preferred  by  breeders,  while  buyers  of  ponies  to  use 
generally  express  a  preference  for  the  skewbalds  and  piebalds. 
The  widest  range  of  oddest  colors  is  permissible,  but  broken 
colors  are  suggestive  of  some  Iceland  or  Faroe  Island  foundation 
in  the  remote  ancestry. 

Too  Little  Discrimination. — While  the  demand  for  chil- 
dren's ponies  is  strong  and  they  meet  with  ready  sale,  there  is  not 
sufiicient  discrimination  among  buyers  to  stimulate  much  im- 
provement in  the  breed.  All  ponies  look  alike  to  the  majority, 
it  seems,  and  so  long  as  they  are  clever  and  safe,  no  further  ques- 
tions are  asked.  The  result  is  that  the  average  pony  falls  short 
of  ordinary  horse  standards,  leggy,  coarse^headed,  flat-ribbed, 
steep-rumped,  cat-hammed,  and  crooked-legged  individuals,  with 
no  step,  being  all  too  common.  On  the  other  hand,  some  wonder- 
fully typical,  good-going  ponies  have  been  brought  out  by  those 
who  have  given  time  and  study  to  their  production. 

THE  WELSH  PONY 

The  Welsh  pony  is  native  to  the  rough  mountain  districts  of 
Wales,  but  has  long  been  bred  for  actual  road  work.  Their  open 
life,  ranging  in  bands,  has  made  them  extremely  rugged  and 
thrifty.  Some  improvement  in  their  way  of  going  has  been 
secured  by  the  use  of  small  ]N'orfolk  trotting  stallions  from  time 
to  time,  although  not  enough  crossing  has  been  done  to  destroy 
the  original  integrity  of  the  breed. 

The  true  type  of  Welsh  pony  is  comparable  to  a  miniature 
coach  horse  (Fig.  94),  pony  built,  yet  with  a  good  head,  neck, 
and  forehand,  well  formed  legs,  and  considerable  speed  and  action 
at  the  trot,  with  unusual  endurance.    They  are  snappy  and  free. 


136 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


all  horse  for  their  size,  and  are,  therefore,  better  adapted  to  the 
use  of  junior  equestrians  than  as  playmates  for  little  children, 
the  field  of  the  Shetland  pony. 

The  foreign  Welsh  Pony  and  Cob  Studbook  gives  this  classi- 
fication according  to  height : 

A.  Ponies  not  exceeding  12  hands,  2  inches. 

B.  Ponies  12  hands,  2  inches  to  13  hands,  2  inches. 

C.  Ponies  13  hands,  2  inches  to  14  hands,  2  inches. 

D.  Ponies  14  hands,  2  inches  to  15  hands,  2  inches. 


Fig.  94. — A  Welsh  pony  stallion,  showing  the  size  and  form  characteristic  of  the  breed. 


The  last  three  show  an  increasing  percentage  of  the  Norfolk 
cob  blood.  Those  of  class  D  are  in  excess  of  the  pony  limit  and 
are  therefore  cobs  proper. 

Colors  are  chiefly  bay,  although  brown,  chestnut,  gray,  and 
roan  occur. 

Importance  of  Size. — The  frequency  ^vith  which  motors  are 
met  on  the  road  and  the  consequent  danger  in  sending  children 


PONY  BREEDS 


137 


out  unattended  make  a  pony  of  more  size  than  the  typical  Shet- 
land in  greater  demand  than  formerly.  Furthermore,  Welsh 
ponies  are  really  useful  and  need  not  be  confined  to  children's 
use.    A  smart  pair,  properly  appointed,  is  well  adapted  to  ladies' 


use. 


THE  HACKNEY  PONY 


The  Hackney  pony  is  a  representative  Hackney  under  14 
hands,  2  inches  (Fig.  95),  eligible  to  the  same  registration  and 


Fig.  95. — A  Hackney  pony  stallion;  a  typical  representative  of  the  Hackney  breed,  under 
the  pony  limit  of  stature. 

frequently  bred  in  similar  lines  on  one  side  as  are  full-sized 
Hackneys.  As  Hackneys  have  been  used  in  the  improvement  of 
the  gait  and  action  of  the  Welsh  breed,  there  has  no  doubt  been 
a  reciprocal  cross  in  the  making  of  Hackney  ponies.  Some  Welsh 
breeding  in  the  dams  of  registered  Hackney  ponies  is  not  uncom- 
mon nor  prohibited  by  the  rules  of  registry. 

Show  Ponies. — Hackney  ponies  are  the  smartest  thing  in 
horse  form,  possessing  all  the  flash  and  excessive  action  of  their 
larger  namesakes  in  an  exaggerated  degree.    A  distinction  should 


138  '    TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

be  drawn,  however,  between  a  child's  pony  and  a  show  pony,  and 
few  of  the  sensational  Hackney  ponies  of  the  show  ring  inspire 
much  confidence  in  their  trustworthiness  for  children.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  a  well-marked  preference  expressed  for  the 
larger  ponies,  if  thoroughly  reliable,  as  mounts  for  juvenile 
equestrians,  the  number  of  which  is  increasing. 

OTHER  PONY  BREEDS 

Other  pony  types  or  strains  to  which  reference  is  sometimes 
made  but  for  which  no  studbooks  exist,  in  this  countrv^  at  least, 
are  the  Exmoor,  Dartmoor,  'New  Forest,  Cumberland,  and  West- 
moreland of  England ;  the  Connemara  of  Ireland ;  the  Galloway 
and  Highland  ponies  of  Scotland;  and  Arabs  under  14  hands, 
2  inches,  as  many  of  them  are. 

REVIEW 

1.  What  is  believed  to  be  the  foundation  stock  from  which  all  pony 

breeds  are  derived? 

2.  Which  of  the  pony  breeds  has  been  most  influenced  by  environment 

and  how? 

3.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  accepted  type  of  Shetlands  in  America 

and  Great  Britain  and  how  is  it  accounted  for? 

4.  To  what  breed  characteristics  does  the  Shetland  owe  its  universal 

popularity  ? 

5.  Describe  the  origin  of  the  Welsh  pony. 

6.  What  out-crosses  have  been  made  and  why? 

7.  What  larger  type  is  the  typical  Welsh  pony  the  miniature  of  ? 

8.  What  classification  of  Welsh  ponies  and  cobs  is  made? 

9.  What   is   the   Hackney   pony;   to   what   purpose   are   they   chiefly 

devoted? 
10.  Name  the  other  pony  stocks. 


CHAPTER  XI 

JUDGING  HORSES 

Purpose. — Judging  is  selection ;  the  means  by  wliicli  the 
breeder  niohls  forms  by  mating  the  approved  and  culling  out 
the  undesirable  individuals.  It  should  not  be  understood  to  mean 
the  placing  of  awards  in  the  show  ring  only,  although  that  is  a 
most  important  function  of  the  judge,  imposing  upon  him  the 
responsibility  of  establishing  ideals  and  standards  which  are  to 
lead  or  mislead  the  rank  and  file  of  breeders.  The  successful 
buyer  or  breeder  must  be  a  competent  judge,  whether  he  has 
ever  placed  a  ribbon  in  a  show  ring  or  not. 

What  Judging  Involves. — Judging  is  more  than  measuring 
to  a  standard  or  the  analysis  of  the  individuals  imder  considera- 
tion ;  the  element  of  comparison  must  figure  in  the  observations, 
from  w'hich  definite  conclusions  can  be  drawn.  It  is  the  balanc- 
ing of  the  sum  total  of  merit  and  deficiency  of  one  individual 
against  that  of  another,  after  the  same  fashion  that  a  judge  on 
the  bench  weighs  all  the  evidence  before  returning  a  verdict. 
There  are  capable  buyers  of  market  horses,  who,  in  car  load  after 
car  load,  will  not  have  a  poor  one,  yet  they  would  not  essay  the 
task  of  designating  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  choice  in 
any  one  car  lot.  They  have  a  definite  standard  in  mind  by  which 
they  can  accept  or  reject,  with  unerring  accuracy,  but  when  it 
l>ecomes  necessary  to  arraign  an  especially  good  head  and  neck 
but  rather  defective  hocks  of  one  against  a  good  back  but  poor 
feet  of  another,  they  fail.  Yet  selection  in  breeding  and  buying 
most  frequently  involves  the  choice  of  one  from  among  several, 
as  does  the  ranking  of  show  entries. 

Accuracy  and  Rapidity. — The  dispatch  with  which  decisions 
are  arrived  at  is  second  only  to  the  accuracy  of  the  decisions 
themselves.  The  man  who  stands  at  the  sales  ring  side  and  buys 
at  the  rate  of  a  horse  a  minute  must  have  rapid,  accurate  decision ; 
so  must  he  who  picks  his  short  leet  and  ultimate  winners  from  a 
class  of  half  a  hundred  stallions.    The  expert  is  able  to  place  an 

139 


140  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

entire  class  of  show  horses  or  to  pick  out  a  car  load  in  the  time 
required  by  the  novice  to  score  one  individual.  The  former  has 
a  fixed  standard  and  a  trained  eye,  which  enable  him  to  discern 
instantly  any  deviations  from  his  standard. 

Furthermore,  he  recognizes  the  law  of  con-elation  and  goes 
by  indices,  largely,  ^Wthout  delaying  to  consider  each  detail 
minutely.  One  feature  or  part  is  correlated  Avith  another,  while 
to  a  third  it  may  be  extremely  opposed.  Dimensions  of  the  same 
class  are  coiTelated,  for  instance,  while  those  of  opposite  classes 
are  related  as  extreme.  A  long  legged  horse  is  also  long  in  neck, 
body,  and  stride,  but  is  proportionately  narrow  and  shallow 
bodied ;  a  horse  in  which  width  is  marked  will  be  short  and  deep 
bodied,  with  a  short,  thick  neck,  low  set  on  his  legs,  and  having 
a  short  but  perhaps  trappy  stride. 

A  systematic  method  of  making  observations  contributes  both 
to  accuracy  and  dispatch  in  judging.  By  this  means  each  look 
is  made  to  count,  re|>etitions  or  omissions  ai*e  avoided,  the  pro- 
portions and  relations  of  the  parts  are  kept  in  mind,  and  a  more 
comprehensive  conception  of  the  whole  is  obtained. 

System  of  Examining. — The  most  logical  system  of  exami- 
nation begins  with  a  view  of  the  horse  from  in  front,  noting  the 
temperament  and  disposition  as  indicated  by  the  expression  of 
the  countenance,  all  features  of  the  head,  the  ^Wdth  and  depth  of 
chest,  the  station,  the  direction  and  conformation  of  the  forelegs 
and  feet.  Then  passing  to  the  side,  near  side  usually,  consider 
the  stature  and  scale,  length  or  compactness,  station,  depth  (espe- 
cially in  the  flank),  the  carriage  and  shape  of  head  and  neck,  the 
shortness  and  levelness  of  the  top  line,  the  length  and  straight- 
ness  of  under  line,  height  and  shape  of  the  withers,  the  slope  of 
shoulder,  direction  and  conformation  of  forelegs  and  feet,  the 
back,  rib,  loin,  flank,  coupling,  croup,  tail,  stifle,  thigh,  direction 
and  confonnation  of  hind  le2:s  and  feet.  From  the  rear  the  s^^n- 
metry,  levelness,  width  and  rotundity  of  hips,  fulness  of  thighs 
and  quarters,  direction  and  confonnation  of  hind  legs  and  feet 
may  l>e  determined.  Viewing  from  the  opposite  side  to  confirm 
the  original  side  view  would  complete  the  examination  of  the 
horse  standing. 

He  should  then  be  moved  away  from  tlie  obsen^er,  in  order 


JUDGING  HORSES  141 

that  the  directness  and  rapidity  of  his  stride,  especially  behind, 
may  be  seen.  Then  as  he  comes  back,  or  "  meets  you,''  note  the 
directness,  rapidity,  and  freedom  of  the  stride  in  front,  the  bold- 
ness, courage,  and  manners  displayed.  As  he  is  led  past  deter- 
mine the  length,  the  height,  spring,  regularity,  and  balance  of 
the  stride,  together  with  the  placing  or  set  of  the  horse  in  action. 
An  expert  judge  may  seem  careless  of  and  indifferent  to  any 
system,  yet  this  very  manner  may  have  been  acquired  from  long 
practice,  in  a  systematic  way. 

A  show  ring  judge  should  not  act  without  good  and  sufficient 
reasons.  He  should  have  the  courage  of  his  convictions  and  be 
able  to  give  a  full  account  of  the  whys  and  wherefores  of  his 
work.  The  Avisdom  of  an  award  appears  very  different  to  on- 
lookers at  the  ring  side  many  times,  with  the  light  of  the  judge's 
reasons  thrown  upon  it. 

Features  to  Consider  in  Judging  Horses. — The  features  to 
which  the  judge  should  give  special  consideration  in  making  his 
observations  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

1.  General  Appearance :  (a)  Height,  (h)  weight,  (c)  style, 
(d)  symmetry,  (e)  color  and  markings. 

2.  Form:  (a)  Station  (setting  on  legs),  (h)  width,  (c) 
depth,  (d)  compactness,  (e)  contour. 

3.  Confonnation.     (As  outlined  in  Chapter  II.) 

4.  Quality:  (a)  Hide  and  hair,  (h)  bone,  (c)  finish,  (d) 
general  refinement. 

5.  Substance:  (a)  Proportion  of  weight  to  height,  (h)  bone, 
(c)  muscling. 

6.  Constitution:  (a)  Chest  and  abdominal  capacity,  (h) 
evidence  of  thrift  and  vigor. 

7.  Condition:   (a)   Degree  of  fatness,  (h)   fitness  for  work. 

8.  Way  of  Going.     (As  outlined  in  Chapter  III.) 

9.  Age:   (a)   Determination  of,  (h)   significance  of. 

10.  Soundness:   (a)   Examination    for,    (h)   importance   of. 

11.  Temperament  and  Disposition. 

SCORE   CARD 

The  score  card  consists  of  a  word  picture  of  the  ideal  horse 
in  which  a  numerical  value  is  attached  to  each  part  for  the  pur- 


142  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

pose  of  indicating  its  relative  importance.  The  hock  is  a  no 
more  essential  part  of  the  horse's  anatomy  than  the  forearm, 
yet  tlie  defects  to  which  the  hock  is  subject  are  so  much  more 
numerous,  and  their  effect  on  the  serviceability  of  the  horse  of  so 
much  more  importance,  that  it  is  deserving  of  more  careful  con- 
sideration. On  this  basis  the  hock  is  allotted  six  units  or  counts, 
the  forearm  two. 

Scoring  is  the  application  of  the  score  card  as  a  standard  of 
merit  to  the  individual,  for  the  purpose  of  detennining  and 
expressing  numerically  his  degree  of  perfection.  Applied  suc- 
cessively to  a  number  of  individuals,  it  affords  a  means  of  deter- 
mining their  relative  merits.  However,  this  system  is  not  appli- 
cable to  show  ring  judging  or  sales  ring  selection.  The  chief  use 
of  the  score  card  is  in  the  classroom,  where  continued  practice 
in  scoring  affords  the  best  means  of  training  the  eye  in  making 
accurate  obser\^ations,  while  there  is  being  acquired,  at  the  same 
time,  a  mind  picture  of  the  ideal.  Once  the  ideal  expressed  on 
the  score  card  is  indelibly  fixed  in  the  mind,  the  card  may  be 
given  up  and  the  mental  picture  take  its  place  as  a  standard  of 
judgment.  In  the  development  of  good  judgment  the  score  card 
is  indispensable,  but  for  the  practice  of  judging  it  is  of  little  use. 
Condensed  or  summarized  score  cards  have  been  arranged  which 
facilitate  scoring  for  such  objects  as  the  advanced  registry  of 
dairy  cattle  and  other  purposes,  but  for  students'  use  the  full, 
detailed  accounting  of  every  part  is  essential. 

The  Draft  Horse  Score  Card. — Following  is  the  scale  of 
points  and  standard  of  excellence  for  tlie  draft  horse : 

General  Appearance. — 16.  Counts 

1.  Weight 

2.  Height 

3.  Form — low  station,  wide,  deep,  compact,  massive 4 

4.  Substance — bone  ample,  joints  broad,  proportioned  to  scale 4 

5.  Quality — bone  dense  and  clean,  tendons  and  joints  sharply  defined, 

leg  broad  and  fiat,  hide  and  hair  fine,  refinement  of    head, 
finish 4 

6.  Temperament— energetic,  disposition  good,  intelligent 4 

Head  and  Neck. — 7. 

7.  Head — size  and  dimensions,   in  proportion,   clear  cut  features, 

straight  face  line^  wide  angle  in  lower  jaw 1 


JUDGING  HORSES  143 

8.  Muzzle — ^broad,  nostrils  large  but  not  dilated,  lips  thin,  even, 

trim 1 

9.  Eyes — prominent  orbit;  large,  full,  bright,  clear;  lid  thin,  even 

curvature 1 

10.  Forehead — broad,  full 1 

11.  Ears — medium  size,  fine,  pointed,  set  close,  carried  alert 1 

12.  Neck — long,  muscular  but  not  thick,  well  crested,  throttle  well  cut 

out,  head  well  set  on 2 

Forehand. — 24. 

13.  Shoulders — long,  sloping,  smooth,  muscular 2 

14.  Arm — short,  muscular,  elbow  in 2 

15.  Forearm — wide,  muscular 2 

16.  Knees — straight,  wide,  deep,  strongly  supported 2 

17.  Canons — short,    broad,    flat,   tendons    sharply  defined,   set   well 

back 2 

18.  Fetlocks — wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well  supported 2 

19.  Pasterns — long,  oblique  (45  degrees),  smooth,  strong 2 

20.  Feet — large,  round,  uniform,  straight,  slope  of  wall  parallel  to 

slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars  strong,  frogs  large  and 
elastic;  heels  wide,  full,  one-third  height  of  toe;  horn  dense, 
smooth,  dark  color 6 

21.  Legs — direction  viewed  from  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  dropped 

from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into 
two  lateral  halves.  Viewed  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line 
dropped  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  scapula  should  pass  through 
the  centre  of  the  elbow- joint  and  meet  the  ground  at  the  centre 
of  the  foot 4 

Body.—n. 

22.  Withers — well  defined  but  muscular 2 

23.  Chest — wide,  deep 2 

24.  Ribs — well  sprung,  long,  close 2 

25.  Back — short,  straight,  strong,  broad .  2 

26.  Loin — short,  broad,  strongly  coupled 2 

27.  Flank — deep,  full,  long,  low  under  line 1 

Hindquarters. — 32. 

28.  Hips — wide,  level,  muscular 2 

29.  Croup — long,  level,  muscular 2 

30.  Tail — attached  high,  well  carried 1 

31.  Thighs — deep,  muscular 2 

32.  Stifles — broad,  thick,  muscular 2 

33.  Gaskins — wide,  muscular 2 

34.  Hocks — straight,  wide,  point  prominent,  deep,  clean  cut,  smooth, 

well  supported 6 

35.  Canons — short,    broad,   flat,   tendons  sharply   defined,    set   well 

back 2 

36.  Fetlocks — wide,  tendons  well  set  back,  straight,  well  supported. .  2 

37.  Pasterns — long,  oblique  (50  degrees),  smooth,  strong 3 

38.  Feet — large,  round  (slightly  less  than  in  front),  uniform,  straight, 

elope  of  wall  parallel  to  slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars 
strong,  frog  large,  elastic;  heels  wide,  full,  one-third  height  of 
toe;  horn  dense,  smooth,  dark  color 4 


144  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

39.  Legs — direction    viewed    from   the   rear,    a   perpendicular   line 

dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  divide  the  leg  and 
foot  into  lateral  halves;  viewed  from  the  side,  this  same  line 
should  touch  the  point  of  the  hock  and  meet  the  ground  some 
little  distance  back  of  the  heel.  A  perpendicular  line  dropped 
from  the  hip-joint  should  meet  the  ground  near  the  centre  of 
the  foot 4 

Way  of  Going. — 10. 

40.  Walk — straight,  strong,  active 6 

41.  Trot — powerful,  free,  moderate  action 4 

Total 100 


»  The  Heavy  Harness  Horse  Score  Card. — The  following  is 
tlie  standard  of  excellence  and  scale  of  points  for  the  heavy 
harness  horse: 

General  Appearance. — 12.  Counts 

1.  Height 

2.  Weight 

3.  Form — close,  full  made,  smooth  turned,  symmetrical 4 

4.  Quality — bone  clean,  dense,  fine,  yet  indicating  substance,  ten- 

dons and  joints  sharply  defined,  hide  and  hair  fine,  general  re- 
finement, finish 4 

5.  Temperament — proud,  bold,  stylish,  disposition  good,  intelligent.        4 

Head  and  Neck. — 7. 

6.  Head — size   and   dimensions   in   proportion,    clear   cut   features, 

straight  face  line,  wide  angle  in  lower  jaw 1 

7.  Muzzle — fine,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  trim,  even 1 

8.  Eyes — prominent  orbit;  large,  full,  bright,  clear;  lid  thin,  even 

curvature  1 

9.  Forehead — broad,  full 1 

10.  Ears — medium  size,  fine,  pointed,  set  close,  carried  alert 1 

11.  Neck — long,    lofty   carriage,    high   crest,    throttle   well   cut   out, 

head  well  set  on 2 

Forehand.— 22. 

12.  Shoulders — long,  oblique,  smooth 2 

13.  Arms — short,  muscular,  carried  well  forward 1 

14.  Forearm — broad,  muscular 1 

15.  Knees — straight,  wide,  deep,  strongly  supported 2 

16.  Canons — short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  defined,  set  well  back.  2 

17.  Fetlocks — wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well  supported 2 

18.  Pasterns — long,  obhque  (45  degrees),  smooth,  strong 2 

19.  Feet — large,  round,  uniform,  straight,  slope  of  wall  parallel  to 

slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars  strong,  frog  large,  elastic, 
heels  wide,  full,  one-third  height  of  toe,  horn  dense,  smooth, 
dark  color ; 6 


JUDGING  HORSES  145 

20  Legs— direction  viewed  from  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  dropped 
from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  divide  the  leg  and  foot 
into  two  lateral  halves;  viewed  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular 
line  dropped  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  scapula  should  pass 
through  the  centre  of  the  elbow-joint  and  meet  the  ground  at 
the  centre  of  the  foot 4 

Body.—n. 

21.  Withers— well  set  up,  narrow,  extending  well  back 2 

22.  Chest — wide,  deep ^ 

23.  Ribs— well  sprung,  long,  close ^ 

24.  Back— short,  straight,  strong,  broad ^ 

25.  Loin— short,  broad,  strongly  coui)led ^ 

26.  Flank— deep,  full,  long,  low  under  Ime 1 

Hindquarters. — 32 

27.  Hips— broad,  round,  smooth 2 

28.  Croup — long,  level,  round,  smooth ^ 

29.  Tail— set  high,  well  carried ^ 

30.  Thighs— full,  muscular ^ 

3L  Stifles— broad,  full,  muscular ^ 

32.  Gaskins— broad,  muscular • •  •        ^ 

33.  Hocks— straight,  wide,  point  promment,  deep,  clean  cut,  smootn, 

well  supported ,•  •  ,  ^   •  •,•  •  '  1 '  '   ii  Y  '  i"  o 

34    Canons— short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  defined,  set  well  back  Z 

35.  Fetlocks— wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well  supported.  ...  2 

36.  Pasterns— long,  obUque  (50  degrees),  smooth,  strong ...  ^ 

37    Feet— large,  round  (slightly  less  than  in  front),  uniform,  straight, 

slope  of  wall  parallel  to  slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars 
strong,  frog  large  and  elastic,  heels  wide,  full  one-third  height  of 
toe,  horn  dense,  smooth,  dark  color •  •  • •.  •  •        4 

38.  Legs— direction   viewed    from    the    rear,    a    perpendicular    line 

dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  divide  the  leg  and 
foot  into  lateral  halves;  viewed  from  the  side,  this  same  hne 
should  touch  the  point  of  the  hock  and  meet  the  ground  some 
little  distance  back  of  the  heel.  A  perpendicular  hne  dropped 
from  the  hip-joint  should  meet  the  ground  near  the  centre  ot 
the  foot 

Way  of  Going. — 16. 

39.  Walk— straight,  snappy,  springy,  proud,  stylish J  V  '  V  ' 

40.  Trot— in  line,  bold,  flashy,  extreme  flexion  of  knees  and  hocks, 

balanced,  regular 

Total 100 

The  Light  Harness  Horse  Score  Card. — Following  is  tlie 
scale  of  points  for  the  light  harness  horse : 

General  Appearance. — 12. 

1.  Height 

2.  Weight , 4 

3.  Form— rangy,  deep,  lithe,  angular .••••••. •  •  • •  •  '  • 

4.  Quality— bone  clean,  dense,  fine,  yet  indicating  substance,  ten- 

dons and  joints  sharply  defined,  hide  and  hair  fine,  general 
refinement \'  '■  ' i  li-'    '1 a 

5.  Temperament— nervous,  active,  disposition  good,  intelligent * 

10 


146  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

Head  and  Neck. — 7. 

6.  Head — size  and  dimensions  in  proportion,   clear  cut  features, 

straight  face  line,  wide  angle  in  lower  jaw 1 

7.  Muzzle — fine,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  trim,  even 1 

8.  Eyes — prominent  orbit;  large,  full,  bright,  clear;  lid  thin,  even 

curvature 1 

9.  Forehead — broad,  full 1 

10.  Ears — medium  sized,  fine,  pointed,  set  close,  carried  alert 1 

11.  Neck — long,  lean,  crest  well  defined,  extended  carriage,  well  cut 

out  in  the  throttle,  head  well  set  on 2 

Forehand. — 23. 

12.  Shoulders — long,  oblique,  smooth 2 

13.  Arms — short,  muscular,  carried  well  forward 1 

14.  Forearm — long,  broad,  muscular 2 

15.  Knees — straight,  wide,  deep,  strongly  supported 2 

16.  Canons — short,    broad,   flat,   tendons  sharply  defined,   set   well 

back 2 

17.  Fetlocks — wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well  supported 2 

18.  Pasterns — long,  obhque  (45  degrees),  smooth,  strong 2 

19.  Feet — large,  round,  uniform,  straight,  slope  of  wall  parallel  to 

slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars  strong,  frog  large,  elastic, 
heels  wide,  full,  one-third  height  of  toe,  horn  dense,  smooth, 
dark  color 6 

20.  Legs — direction  viewed  from  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  dropped 

from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into 
two  lateral  halves.  Viewed  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line 
dropped  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  scapula  should  pass  through 
the  centre  of  the  elbow-joint  and  meet  the  ground  at  the  centre 
of  the  foot 4 

Body.— 11. 

21.  Withers — well  set  up,  narrow,  extending  well  back 2 

22.  Chest — medium  w^dth,  deep 2 

23.  Ribs — well  sprung,  long,  close 2 

24.  Back — short,  straight,  strong,  broad 2 

25.  Loins — short,  broad,  strongly  coupled 2 

26.  Flank — deep,  full,  long,  low  under  line 1. 

Hindquarters. — 3 1 . 

27.  Hips — broad,  round,  smooth 2 

28.  Croup — long,  level,  smooth 2 

29.  Tail — set  high,  well  carried 1 

30.  Thighs — full,  muscular 2 

31.  Stifles — broad,  full,  muscular 2 

32.  Gaskins — broad,  muscular 2 

33.  Hocks — straight,  wide,  point  prominent,  deep,  clean  cut,  smooth, 

well  supported 6 

34.  Canons — short,   broad,   flat,   tendons  sharply  defined,   set  well 

back 2 

35.  Fetlocks — wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well  supported 2 

36.  Pasterns — long,  oblique  (50  degrees),  smooth,  strong 2 

37.  Feet — large,  round  (slightly  less  than  in  front),  uniform,  straight, 

slope  of  wall  parallel  to  slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars 
strong,  frog  large  and  elastic,  heels  wide,  full,  one-thirS  height 
of  toe,  horn  dense,  smooth,  dark  color 4 


JUDGING  HORSES  147 

38.  Legs — direction   viewed    from    the    rear,    a    perpendicular    line 

dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  divide  the  leg  and 
foot  into  lateral  halves;  viewed  from  the  side,  this  same  line 
should  touch  the  point  of  the  hock  and  meet  the  ground  some 
little  distance  back  of  the  heel.  A  perpendicular  line  dropped 
from  the  hip-joint  should  meet  the  ground  near  the  centre  of 
the  foot 4 

Way  of  Going. — 16. 

39.  Walk^ — long,  free  stride 6 

40.  Trot — long,  rapid,  straight,  reachy  stride 10 

Total 100 

The  Saddle  Horse  Score  Card. — Following  is  the  scale  of 
points  and  standard  of  excellence  for  the  saddle  horse: 

General  Appearance. — 12.  Counta 

1.  Height 

2.  Weight 

3.  Form — close  but  not  full  made,  deep  but  not  broad,  symmetrical.        4 

4.  Quality — bone  clean,  dense,  fine,  yet  indicating  substance,  ten- 

dons and  joints  sharply  defined,  hide  and  hair  fine,  general 
refinement,  finish 4 

5.  Temperament — active,  disposition  good,  intelligent 4 

Head  and  Neck. — 8. 

6.  Head — size    and    dimensions  in   proportion,   clear   cut  features, 

straight  face  line,  wide  angle  in  lower  jaw 1 

7.  Muzzle — fine,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  trim,  even 1 

8.  Eyes — prominent  orbit;  large,  full,  bright,  clear;  lid  thin,  even 

curvature 1 

9.  Forehead — broad,  full 1 

10.  Ears — medium  size,  pointed,  set  close,  carried  alert 1 

11.  Neck — long,  supple,  well  crested,  not  carried  too  high,  throttle 

well  cut  out,  head  well  set  on 3 

Forehand. — 22. 

12.  Shoulders — very  long,  sloping  yet  muscular 3 

13.  Arms — short,  muscular,  carried  well  forward 1 

14.  Forearm — long,  broad,  muscular 1 

15.  Knees — straight,  wide,  deep,  strongly  supported 2 

16.  Canons — short,    broad,    flat,   tendons   sharply  defined,  set   well 

back 2 

17.  Fetlocks — wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well  supported 2 

IS.  Pasterns — long,  oblique  (45  degrees),  smooth,  strong 2 

19.  Feet — large,  round,  uniform,  straight,  slope  of  wall  parallel  to 

slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars  strong,  frog  large,  elastic, 
heels  wide,  full,  one-third  height  of  toe,  horn  dense,  smooth, 
dark  color 5 

20.  Legs — direction  viewed  from  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  dropped 

from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  divide  the  leg  and  foot 
into  two  lateral  halves.  Viewed  from  the  side,  a  perpendicu- 
lar line  dropped  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  scapula  should  pass 
through  the  centre  of  the  elbow-joint  and  meet  the  ground  at 
the  centre  of  the  foot 4 


148  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

Body.—\2. 

21.  Withers — high,  muscular,  well  finished  at  top,  extending  well  into 

back 3 

22.  Chest — medium  wide,  deep 2 

23.  Ribs — well  sprung,  long,  close 2 

24.  Back — short,  straight,  strong,  broad 2 

25.  Loin — short,  broad,  muscular,  strongly  coupled 2 

26.  Flank — deep,  full,  long,  low  under  line 1 

Hindquarters. — 3 1 . 

27.  Hips — broad,  round,  smooth 2 

28.  Croup — long,  level,  round,  smooth 2 

29.  Tail— set  high,  well  carried 2 

30.  Tliighs— full,  muscular 2 

31.  Stifles — broad,  full,  muscular 2 

32.  Gaskins — broad,  muscular 2 

33.  Hocks — straight,  wide,  point  prominent,  deep,  clean  cut,  smooth, 

well  supported 5 

34.  Canons — short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  defined,  set  well  back.  2 

35.  Fetlocks — wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well  supported 2 

36.  Pasterns — long,  oblique  (50  degrees),  smooth,  strong 2 

37.  Feet — large,  round  (slightly  less  than  in  front),  uniform,  straight, 

slope  of  wall  parallel  to  slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars 
strong,  frog  large  and  elastic,  heels  wide,  full,  one-third  height 
of  toe,  horn  dense,  smooth,  dark  color 4 

38.  Legs^-direction    viewed    from    the    rear,    a    perpendicular    fine 

dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  divide  the  leg  and 
foot  into  lateral  halves;  viewed  from  the  side,  this  same  line 
should  touch  the  point  of  the  hock  and  meet  the  ground  some 
Httle  distance  back  of  the  heel.  A  perpendicular  line  dropped 
from  the  hip-joint  should  meet  the  ground  near  the  centre  of 
the  foot 4 

Way  of  Going. — 15. 

39.  Walk — rapid,  flat  footed,  in  line 5 

40.  Trot — free,  straight,  smooth,  springy,  going  well  off  hocks,  not 

extreme  knee  fold 5 

41.  Canter — slow,  collected,  either  lead,  no  cross  canter 5 

Total 100 

SOUNDNESS 

A  horse  is  sound  provided  there  be  not  a  partial  or  total  loss 
of  function,  preventing  or  likely  to  prevent  him  from  perform- 
ing the  ordinary  duties  of  his  class. 

The  real  significance  of  soundness  is  quite  generally  misun- 
derstood by  the  tisers  of  horses,  much  to  their  own  disadvantage 
and  to  the  misfortune  of  many  an  unsound  horse.  The  impor- 
tance of  an  existing  unsoundness  is  directly  proportionate  to  the 
extent  to  which  it  incapacitates  a  horse  for  the  service  to  which 
he  is  otherwise  best  adapted.    If  it  causes  him  little  or  no  incon- 


JUDGING  HORSES  149 

venience,  and  is  not  liable  to,  it  is  of  little  or  no  consequence. 
The  technically  sound  horse  is  an  exceptional  individual  and 
has  less  actual  additional  value  over  the  serviceably  sound  horse 
than  is  generally  credited  to  him. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  nature  or  extent  of  an  unsoundness 
may  be  such  as  to  cause  the  total  disability  of  a  horse  either  at 
present  or  in  the  future.  Serviceable  soundness  is  all  that  it  is 
practical  to  seek  or  require;  and  just  what  constitutes  service- 
able soundness  is  arbitrarily  determined  by  the  nature  of  the 
work  which  the  horse  is  expected  to  do.  If  more  thought  were 
given  to  the  real  causes  of  unsoundness,  present  and  prospective, 
and  less  to  its  technical  existence,  it  would  probably  give  less 
annoyance. 

The  durability  of  any  machine  is  a  matter  of  construction, 
covering  the  grade  of  materials  used,  the  assembling  of  all  parts, 
the  alignment  and  adjustment  of  all  bearings  and  wearing  parts 
in  order  to  minimize  friction,  distribute  wear,  and  to  facilitate 
operation  in  general.  Allow  any  little  cog  to  slip  or  an  adjust- 
ment to  become  displaced,  and  either  the  whole  machine  is 
rendered  useless  or  its  operation  is  greatly  impaired. 

The  Equine  Machine. — It  is  so  with  the  equine  mechanism. 
Most  unsoundnesses  have  their  origin  in  stinictural  defects  or 
imperfections.  The  spavin  and  the  curb  make  their  appearance 
on  the  crooked  hind  leg  as  a  result  of  the  cuneifonn  l)onc  and 
curb  ligament  being  called  upon  to  do  more  than  their  nonnal 
share  of  the  work  of  the  leg,  on  account  of  the  deflection  in  the 
line  in  which  weight  is  borne  and  power  applied. 

Side  bones  are  most  common  on  the  outer  quarters  of  wide- 
fronted  draft  horses,  because  such  horses  are  inclined  to  be  "  toe 
narrow,"  which  brings  the  outer  quarter  nearer  to  the  centre  of 
weight  bearing,  thereby  imposing  weight  and  wear  which  should 
be  borne  by  the  other  quarter.  As  a  consequence  the  cartilage 
ossifies  or  changes  to  bone. 

If  an  existing  unsoundness  has  apparently  developed,  inde- 
pendent of  predisposing  causes  of  conformation,  and  does  not 
impair  the  horse's  usefulness,  it  is  of  less  account  than  when 
the  causative  defect  in  confonuation  is  apparent  but  no  actual 
unsoundness  exists  yet.     In  the  first  place,  a  repetition  of  the 


150  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

unusual  condition  to  which  the  unsoundness  is  due  is  not  likely ; 
while  in  the  second  case,  the  predisposing  cause  is  continually 
operative,  and  the  ultimate  development  of  actual  unsoundness 
is  well  nigh  inevitable.  Once  developed,  its  condition  is  repeat- 
edly aggravated  by  the  same  means  which  originally  induced  it. 

Rejecting  for  Unsoundness. — It  is  not  consistent  to  reject  a 
horse,  in  all  other  respects  suitable  for  one's  purpose,  because  he 
cannot  be  certified  absolutely  sound,  only  to  finally  accept  on  the 
strength  of  a  certificate  of  soundness  a  horse  woefully  deficient 
in  regard  to  most  other  requirements.  Counsel  of  the  veterina- 
rian should  be  on  the  true  importance  of  the  unsoundness,  if  it 
exists,  rather  than  for  its  mere  detection. 

Soundness  is  but  one  of  the  attributes  which  render  a  horse 
of  service.  Horses  unsound  in  some  degree  are  giving  perfectly 
satisfactory  service  in  all  fields  in  which  horses  are  engaged,  and, 
so  long  as  that  is  the  case,  it  is  unjust  to  the  horses  and  detri- 
mental to  the  owners  to  discard  them  for  a  mere  technicality. 
Provided  a  horse  goes  sound  in  spite  of  some  unsoundness  to 
which  he  is  subject,  and  promises  to  continue  so  to  go,  the  un- 
soundness should  not  outweigh  in  importance  the  other  essentials 
of  a  good  horse,  as  type,  conformation,  and  performance. 

Age. — The  Determination  of  Age. — There  is  nothing  mys- 
terious nor  empirical  about  the  determination  of  the  age  by  tlie 
teeth.  Up  to  five  years,  it  is  simply  a  matter  of  the  eruption  of 
the  teeth,  which  in  the  normal  individual  follows  the  same  reg- 
ular course  that  characterizes  all  other  physiological  processes. 
After  the  permanent  teeth  are  all  in,  the  indications  are  the 
result  of  wear,  which  is  uniformly  accomplished  in  the  normal 
mouth  on  account  of  the  extreme  durability  of  the  individual 
teeth  and  their  arrangement. 

Certain  general  features  must  be  understood  before  any  at- 
tempt is  made  to  differentiate  the  appearance  of  the  mouth  at 
various  years.  The  permanent  teeth  may  be  distinguished,  after 
their  eruption,  from  the  milk  teeth,  which  are  shed  as  the  perma- 
nent teeth  come  through,  by  greater  size,  a  broader  neck  showing 
no  constriction,  perpendicular,  parallel  grooves  and  ridges  on 
their  face,  and  a  whiter  color. 

The  incisor  teeth,  which  are  the  ones  depended  upon  because 


JUDGING  HORSES  151 

they  are  most  easily  exposed  to  view,  are  originally  oval-shaped 
at  the  table  or  wearing  end,  gradually  becoming  triangular  to- 
ward the  root.  The  longitudinal  dimensions  of  the  teetli  are 
curved,  with  the  convexity  forward,  toward  the  lips,  the  con- 
cavity toward  the  mouth.  The  table  itself  is  cupped  out  in  the 
centre  by  a  depression,  into  which  tlie  enamel  of  the  tooth  dips. 
As  wear  commences,  the  surface  enamel  is  worn  off,  leaving  two 
distinct  enamel  rings,  one  around  the  margin  of  the  table  and  the 
other  around  the  cup.  This  cup  itself  becomes  gradually  more 
shallow  until  it  is  finally  worn  almost  completely  away.  As 
wear  on  the  table  removes  more  and  more  of  the  end  of  the  tooth, 
the  level  of  the  pulp  cavity  in  the  centre  of  the  tooth  is  finally 
reached,  and  the  exjiosed  tip  of  this  canal  appears  between  what 
is  left  of  the  cup  and  the  front  of  tho  t<x)th.  Other  sequences  of 
the  continued  wearing  away  of  the  tooth  are  the  changes  in  out- 
line of  its  transverse  diameter,  becoming,  first,  more  oval  from 
side  to  side,  then  more  distinctly  triangular  as  wear  continues 
toward  the  root.  Also,  as  the  mouth  end  of  the  tooth  is  worn 
away  the  level  of  the  tables  and  their  contact  is  maintained  by 
the  tissues  closing  in  behind  the  root  and  forcing  the  tooth  for- 
ward. This  gives  the  angle  of  the  arch  of  the  incisors  less  curve 
and  more  slant,  at  the  same  time  rendering  the  margin  and  out- 
line of  the  jaw  sharper  and  flatter.  As  the  arch  becomes  more 
slanting,  the  surfaces  of  the  teeth  meet  at  a  different  angle,  and, 
in  the  case  of  the  comers,  the  lower  teeth  do  not  wear  clear  to 
the  back  margins  of  the  uppers,  so  that  a  hook  or  notch  is  grad- 
ually formed,  Avorn  away,  and  formed  again  at  different  years. 
Tlieso,  with  the  eru])tion  of  the  caninrs,  which  occurs  in  males  at 
from  five  to  six  years,  are  the  princi]ial  changes  upon  which  the 
age  is  reckoned.  It  remains  now  to  indicate  just  what  changes 
are  characteristic  of  the  different  yearly  periods  (Figs.  96-116). 
The  Importance  of  Age. — Age  plays  an  important  part  in 
determining  a  horse's  market  value.  Statistics  show  the  best 
selling  age  to  be  from  five  to  eight  years,  while,  on  the 
contrary,  experience  has  demonstrated  that  the  best  wearing 
and  most  serviceable  age  is  from  eight  tx>  twelve.  Aft^r  a  horse 
passes  eight  and  has  had  some  city  wear,  the  market  classes 
him   as   second-handed   and   discounts   his.  value   accordingly. 


152 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


.5  t« 
Co 


4J   O 

s  a 


as 


JUDGING  HORSES 


153 


Fir..  07. — Longitudinal  and  median  section  of  a  permanent  inferior  pincer  (enlarged). 
FA,  anterior  face;  FP,  posterior  face;  C,  cement;  E,  enamel;  /,  ivory;  PL,  pulp  cavity; 
CU,  cup;  T,  table;  R,  root. 


154 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


i  u  ^  U.S.  o 

S  13  7?  S  d      o 
m    -  c3  J:  ,,  s  2 

S  «  o  *  0.2-^ 

u  if  g  t-  c'^.2 

I      '^  «    U    r-    O 

■-3  c  c<—  ^  « 

a  g3  I,  o^  a 


JUDGING  HORSES 


155 


rs-tiiMf 

Fig.  99.- 
ough  the  g 
•der  of  the 
ght  of  this 
the  degree 
ich  is  surrc 
icers  and  th 
e  corners  a 

-One 
urns. 
pince 
bordc 
of  w 
•unde 
eintc 
,re  sti 

Year: 
In  pr 
rs  and 
3r,  acco 
ear  of 
d  by  t] 
;rmedia 
ill  virgi 

PJS?3.D^§.^ 

?■  ^  ^  5'^  ~s- 

,  the 
inter 
g  to 
ante 
emai 
Ift 
The 

j-.crP  2.r*-g  aj  ►-. 

&.0 


<*  c 


CO   P 


(1)  2     o  2  «  ^  S. 
g  S  13  ^tJ-a  p  g 

^  si  2:2  "^  P  O  M. 
5:5  CO  ""  »       00 

3  55S"§p'lr.- 


s 

^" 

a. 

3' 

p. 

1 

0 
0 

p 
3 

ffl 

g 

a 

0 

0 

i 

"< 

^ 

3' 
p 

0 

3 
1 

K 
2 

0 

a- 

^ 

3. 

3t 

at' 

S. 

!r 

a 

_;i 

n 

3- 

cc 

0 

3 
p 

W 

CD 

p 

ct-' 

r: 

(S 

2 

p 

cr 

3 

1? 

fc" 

5' 

CD 

g. 

?^ 

^ 

? 

CD 

00 

3 

c 

0 

1 

0 

P 

cT 
0' 

0 

P 
0 

f 

B 

p 

0 

2. 

P 

«^ 

CD 

p' 

0 

3 

> 

p 

If 

1 

0 

1 

1 

P 

S 

CD 

(T 

2 

-Ts 

0 

w 

5 

1 

3 

B 

CO 

CT 

& 

S.S" 

(R 

S- 

(t 

CP 

a> 

-i 

^ 

0 

fT> 

■1 

Cf 
P 

g'^ 

OS 

p 

IQ  CR 

li 

p 

f6 

3 

P 
0 

3- CD 

^0 

C  o  2  o  S  ^; 

B  "^  CO  W  ^  CD  1 

R  ^(D  3"5  2.: 
»  B-'-E-p  o : 


156 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


W  ©  to  iTSTJ  ©  *"*-• 


'^2  o  *  '*^  tfJ   O  fci  *^ 

«  ~  is  o  "S  »-  **  O-^" 

^  c  ^  S  "^  <y_  aj  t: 


_^  o 


9 


«  5  i: .-  c: 

««    O^   gfH    O   £   fl 

c3  S  F  3  a)  2  "S  S  c  i 

^•s  is->i:3  <uj3  C"3  ■!;t 

^  0"^^      o  to  a^-g  " 
—  So  ya^      °5 

'-'a>a)      Jl?  r^  a  a  a  i-i 


a  a      a  <D -X  ■<^  ij>    » 
^-'i  °  O  3  >£ii  ea  e3 

i::  3  ti'?  a^  rt  i'  3  4; 
■is  Ojs--  3^  S  «  o 


<u  2^  p:  (u 


,2  F_e- 


,03'-    ^^   <0  _    J)    3j 

^       rt  '^  <u_  i^  o  fl 


O   0)''^*^ 


o  3 


fe:S  o  a>  =3  S  3  "ja 


JUDGING  HORSES 


157 


•3  crcrcr 
C  (t  n  (6 


158 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


.^-  S  u  =  3 

^"£'*r  a  i  " 

c^^  'k  '^  a 


o  ^"  £  c^     „• 
fe  i"  2  •'*  ?T^  u 


^c 


--  o  if  c  «  «  g 

I'M  nil 

c  ^  =!  ='5^5 

£  y  c^  =<"^ 


S  =3  "S  ^  X*  O"  » 

X  tc^^  t-  c  " 

o-2--"c  2  03  2 
fe.S'B  *  o  r-'i- 
I'  C  =  O  3  3  O 

oca;  §•■"  o  ? 
o  c  u-r     —  ^ 

S  uT  S  C  I  fe  O 

^         S^         C   t   fl 


JUDGING  HORSES 


159 


^    -^  M    S    fB    rt- 

O  5;-'<  <^  T  M  • 
e*  ^  ^  -^"O  m  • 

it™  o"?  IB  =-^ 

GO  a>  H  <n  P  2  "1 

S  3  i.Stfrg  .^ 

p  p  CO  »       s 
•    "-o  sT  s*  Q^  ^ 


(C   p 


<"  c  o  -5  P 
■JO  o  '^  o  *:> 


5.-1  i  Is. 

ffl  «  p  g  »  = 
§g-S°3'g 

«  2..^„  erg 
p  (D  s-o-r  m 
—  CO  2  _.  o  1 

<^  *  n.EiB  rt- 

•o?3a'a§ 
(D  (p  (*  ffl  cr  ti. 


o  P 


•ffl 


Bi»    r^  C»    c<-  "^ 

S'f'  S.^  ^" 

g  o  ~S  S- 
«  a  0  o.v'^ 
„  o  «  '^cr^ 


►-•iihc-o/:  2 


160 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


CO  a  »H  —  ^.s 


O  I.   rt 


JUDGING  HORSES 


161 


'^■"^ 


n>  O  CB 
-1  2  cc 

£.3  •* 

S  ^^ 
B  <*  «. 


2.2.S 

C   f»   (T> 
5*2.  CD 


o  <^  a 


5  S  » 

CD   1    O 

too  ?• 
o 


3?  ? 


-P  O 


O  01  -. 

2  5  f» 
o 


p  p 


iPa 


11 


162 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


*o  .  ^  a;  g1  ^a 

|l 1 1 1:11 

£  a;  >>-C  EC'S  S'^ 


U.5  gc3  is  MS© 


I     t^  m   r*         '-'■■-'  ^ 


-tj-i-'  a>  «  OB  c^ 


'JUDGING  HORSES' 


163 


164 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


c  73  cj  Mrs  o  o 

—  •*  c  2  '■  -'S 

c  t  c  og  ■»- 

t:  =j=  o  c  5 


JUDGING  HORSES 


165 


«  3  g  r  g  5  .^ 


g  crp  c  5  ai  H 


=•3 


•Cto' 


cra'<  w  c  r*^ 

2  ?^0  3  (t)  (I> 

^  :;  a  <;  n  2  o 

r<-  CO 


oa. 


HH?S* 


p  :?  0  cr-^  B  j 


ta"  o  CO  o  ai  >:- ■  CL. 

«>  «  2  O  X-  ">  - . 

O  O  I  CT^^ 

o  p  o  c  S-  3  o 


^«o 


-  _^o 


I    P    fO 


5-cr  ■'OTi'^  -i 
"  Co  "^  ~'->"a 

5   o   «   .  ,     . 
5  <i'i  o  O 

^  ■     5 


p  "  ,^  '-'  z  p 


O  B-O  B  S'*! 

P  •  «  2.2  5- 

B^>sip'^ 
a  »•     CD  (B  P< 


166 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


JUDGING  HORSES 


167 


O   tB    1-1   <2.p   o   ^ 

■^  as  o  1  '-'  i-^CR 


i-(  ^^r+  crP    il   rt>   (B 


-TO 

fD    O 

rf  -j-ci.:^  «>  -<  o 


'^     ft)  ?^&^^.a 
o  p  f;-l?  rti  o  ::. 

(T^  >:^-    p  o  (Tp 

&'■    ffi  r^  rt>  ►-.P' 
•-  '-'^  "^O  o  P 


16S 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


JUDGING  HORSES 


169 


o- 

r^ 

a 

s 

g; 

p 

S 

p 

P 

to 

1-1 

3 

crp 
S3 

s 

p 

o 

p 
o 

III 

|3f« 

3 

3 

CO 

p 

i 

a. 

p 

1 

p 

p 
p 

&. 

1 

QQ 

?5 

■^ 

i* 

5 

2 

1 

i 

^ 

o 

fS 

►1 

w 
< 

p 

cc 

B  CO 
-    (t 

p 

o 

o 

p- 

a 

3 

o 
a> 
P 

P 

p_ 

S 

p 

(T> 

p 

P 

o 

m 

&. 

'< 

(B 

- 

s 

B 

2. 

P 
p 

p 
p 

o 

o 

o 

3 
2. 

0- 

t^^ 

^ 

P 

Cfl 

i'"' 

P- 

p- 

a 

<—. 

•1 

p 

p 

o 

^ 

a 

S3 

^ 

O 

O-ffi 

CD 

ffi 

s 

S' 

►I 

p 

D 

^ 

3 

P 

3 

n 

S 

?■ 

p- 

1 

ai 

o 

o 

? 

p-a 

o 

m 

CCm 

s 

p 

o 

<D 

CD 

<! 

P 

p 

3 

p- 

p 
-1 

p 

P 
P 

Cr 

o 

01 

P 

p 

CD 

1 

P 

P 
7< 

JiJ. 

,^ 

^ 

!? 

^ 

2 

- 

o 

tJ 

(R 

P 

o 

3 

§ 

tr 

ft 

f 

T) 

'^ 

f 

p 

a> 

CD 

t3 

p 

GO 

c 

p 

M 

JB 

"O 

"- 

» 

P 

rt> 

« 

3 

TO 

5 

3 

(T> 

a 

o 

P 

p 

P 

o 

C3 

^ 

m 

>5J 

3 

P 
O 

Z 

"§. 

m 

p 

^ 

p- 

o 

S 

o 

a 

D" 

2 

(6 

s 

P- 

3 

O 

1 

n 

p 

2 

p_ 

0 

S- 

p 

ri  Q 

g 

1 

P- 

s. 

p 

<^ 

1 

'^ 

> 

2, 

p" 

^ 

^ 

r*- 

ai 

a 

p" 

P' 

P  ►- 

o-p 

GO 

c 
3. 

O 

P 

p" 

a 
-1 

^ 

o 

o  o 

0 

p- 

1 

►1 

170 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


JUDGING  HORSES 


171 


"p  3  St''  ^St 
5-S^n^S  "  2  ^ 

P  O  p  3  rti  0 


pS.S'2,S.p.o 

O  p  CB  j:*p  O  •-< 

o'2  o  ^  S  •  ^ 

O  1  JT^'       ft) 

SpO??3a- 
p  1  cr^  -tj""  3 

H  :5  ^     B.p  o 

^^  5  p  2  fS- 

o  ^a  o  So  ^ 
^g  p  g  ??-°,Er 

O  n  C-  ai  re  ft>  ,^ 
S  =r«.3-p  c  ^ 

H,  re   3   O   3^  ^   ffi 

»"<  ^^^  ?  O- 
p  p  re  2  p  5V. 

e-«  E-i  3 :  = 


^o  o 


s  S'S. 


o 
"  ^  re  3 

<*  3  -.«  r're  re 
{i,CR  q^  ^  ^  p  C 

<"£,p'^  o'^^ 
S  p  p  O  -1  3  ^ 

^<T>  r"  CTre  P  ^ 

^o  ^"^S-p  T 
o  1  re  f°  3  o  P 


«.  p  ?^si 


P  2.^  o  P-.o 
p  O  '*  2.ai  ^^ 

H  ^  re  ~a3  0 

g'-gpS^f 

tip  P  m  a  a 


172 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


fmmti 


o  £  £  «.2  c  t.  E 


CS  0-  _ 

Ci  ::i  — T  s  0)  "  08 

z:  w  £  o  «  c  3-3 

a  cj  P  i 


c2  c  Ti.S-^  r:*  h'"" 


o  5 


> 

Cm 


«  a>  2  C^  c  .; 


>  !K  :3 

£.2 


Eh  O  o 


■^   ?   C-   4)^- 

— •  >  r.«  x  ~^  (u 
o  c  o  to  c  ^15  J 

S  o  g- =  «i  «  0-E 
«-j=_-^  c  5  o  "^ 

•-  « 


i;-;?  2  S  £• 


c  >> 


Tc  =>  05  03  6 i:'^ 
<u  a 


XJS 


JT.-^-C   O-^ 


_   i^    -  +3   D.  <^ 


;«  o  o_ 


O   0)^   C3   o   O 

'C-a  4>  P  a*  >»4J-5 

aj  o  o  S3  c  2^'^ 
is  g  S  0.02^  £  83 


JUDGING  HORSES 


173 


This  is  more  in  response  to  demands  of  buyers  than  to  any  real 
depreciation  in  the  serviceability  of  the  horse.  The  average 
horseman  reckons  the  probable  period  of  usefulness  as  the  dif- 
ference between  the  present  age  and  the  age  to  which  the  average 
horse  lives ;  but  there  are  too  many  other  influences  which  may 
impair  a  horse's  usefulness  or  terminate  his  existence  altogether 
to  make  this  a  sound  line  of  reasoning.     A  horse  that  has  with- 


lii;.  I  17. — 'I'lii-^  \\i>r'u-'  h:n  :\  r(-fc,rcl  nf  twonty-thrne  years  in  the  delivery  service  of  a 
large  city  depurtnient  store.  The  reason  is  evident  in  the  superior  breeding  and  conforma- 
tion which  he  manifests. 


stood  ordinary  wear  so  well  that  he  is  comparatively  fresh  and 
sound  at  twelve  years  of  age  gives  promise  of  having  more  years 
of  usefulness  ahead  of  him  than  the  average  six-year-old  just 
from  the  country.  Both  city  stables  and  the  farm  afford  numer- 
ous instances  of  horses  that  have  been  from  sixteen  to  twenty 
years  on  the  job  and  still  give  little  evidence  of  the  infirmities 
that  are  supposed  to  come  with  advancing  years  (Fig.  117).    The 


174 


'TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


Fig.  118. — This  horse  has  served  eighteen  years  in  the  city  as  an  ambulance  horse  and,  by 
virtue  of  his  superior  type,  conformation,  and  intelligence,  is  still  serviceable. 


FlO.  119. — This  horse,  o£f  type  and  of  inferior  conformation,  with  little  sense,  has  been 
rendered  unserviceable  by  the  same  work  in  one  year. 


JUDGING  HORSES  175 

mechanical  excellence  of  conformation  is  a  much  more  important 
factor  in  determining  the  period  of  usefulness  of  a  horse  than  his 
age  (Figs.  118  and  119). 

Disposition  and  intelligence  have  much  to  do  mth  a  horse's 
usefulness.  Together  they  determine  the  character  of  his  per- 
formance, within  the  limits  of  his  possibilities  as  fixed  by  type, 
conformation,  and  soundness.  A  good,  honest,  game  horse  will 
oftentimes  give  more  satisfactory  service  in  spite  of  some  phys- 
ical infirmity  than  a  sound  horse  that  is  sour,  crabbed,  or  deficient 
in  horse  sense,  WTiether  one  rides  or  drives  for  profit  or  pleasure, 
that  end  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  cheerful  responsiveness  with 
which  the  horses  do  their  work.  Horses  are  being  more  and 
more  exclusively  used  for  sporting  purposes  and  to  realize  the 
greatest  delight  from  a  ride  or  a  drive  the  horse  should  enter 
fully  into  the  spirit  of  the  occasion. 

Both  intelligence  and  disposition  are  reflected  in  the  horse's 
countenance — the  expression  of  the  eye,  the  poise  of  the  ear,  and 
his  general  behavior.  Some  horses  are  much  more  demonstrative 
than  others. 

REVIEW 

1.  What  are  the  responsibilities  of  the  judge? 

2.  What  does  judging-  involve  beside  an  analysis  of  the  individuals 

under  consideration  ? 

3.  Of  what  assistance  is  the  law  of  con-elation  to  the  practical  judge? 

4.  What  is  the  importance  of  a  system  of  examination  in  judging? 

Outline  the  most  logical  system. 

5.  What  features  are  to  be  considered  in  judging? 

6.  Discuss  the  proper  use  of  the  score  card. 

7.  Upon  what  will  the  importance  of  an  unsoundness  depend? 

8.  What  Ls  the  relation  of  confonnation  to  the  possible  occurrence  of 

unsoundness? 

9.  How  do  the  teeth  come  to  have  a  definite  appearance  at  different 

ages  ? 
10.  What  can  be  said  in  defence  of  the  old  horse? 


PART  III 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 


12 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES 

The  breeding  of  horses  is  done  on  a  limited  scale  as  a  side 
issue  to  a  general  farming  proposition,  more  commonly  than  the 
breeding  of  any  other  class  of  stock.  The  majority  of  farmers 
raise  only  a  few  colts,  the  bulk  of  the  market  supply  being  pro- 
duced on  a  small  rather  than  a  large  scale. 

Ideals  Differ  Geographically. — The  corn  belt  farmer  is  most 
concerned  Avith  the  weight  of  a  horse,  and  scorns  all  that  cannot 
work,  no  matter  how  proficient  they  may  be  in  other  lines  of 
service.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Kentuckian  is  for  a  "  model  " 
horse,  possessing  quality  in  the  extreme  and  capable  of  a  sporty 
performance,  either  in  the  show  ring  or  on  the  race  track,  be  he 
saddle  or  harness  horse.  The  Southerner  has  no  more  time  for 
a  ^'  bull ''  of  a  drafter  than  his  contemporary  of  the  Middle 
West  has  for  the  '^  dude  "  show  or  iniquitous  race  horse.  In 
many  parts  of  Virginia  the  first  thought  concerning  a  horse  is 
^'  How  well  can  he  jump  ?  "  and  it  is  regarded  as  desecration  of 
blood  to  breed  to  anything  but  a  Thoroughbred  stallion.  The 
average  Eastern  breeder  measures  all  other  types  to  a  road  horse 
standard,  and  he  may  be  found  stinting  common  farm  mares  to 
a  little  crooked  legged  pacer  that  may  happen  to  be  the  idol  of 
the  community  since  winning  the  county  race  at  the  last  fair.  It 
is  all  a  matter  of  difference  in  the  point  of  view,  and  in  some 
communities  this  point  is  so  indelibly  fixed  as  to  make  it  unwise 
to  advocate  a  change,  but  rather  to  recommend  the  pursuit  of  the 
local  ideal  in  the  most  intelligent  manner.  There  is  a  ready 
market  for  a  good  horse  of  almost  any  type,  and  a  breeder  will 
usually  do  best  by  that  which  he  favors  most.  It  may  be  imprac- 
ticable, for  instance,  to  force  the  breeding  of  draft  horses  on  the 
Kentucky  farmer  whose  family  traditions,  intuitive  genius,  and 
available  blood  all  make  for  a  very  different  stamp  of  horse. 
Qlnvestm^it^^^Horse  breeding  requires  a  larger  initial  in- 
vestmesf  lor  a  longer  time  than  most  other  live  stock  enter- 

179 


180 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 


prises,  but  if  well  managed  yields  a  proportionately  greater 
return. 

Principles  of  Breeding. — Breeding  is  the  direction  and  con- 
trol of  tlie  inherent  life  forces,  heredity  and  variation,  by  means 
of  selection  and  mating.  Its  practice  offers  a  means  of  regulat- 
ing the  progeny  by  control  of  the  parentage.  Improvement 
should  be  the  motive,  it  being  something  more  than  a  mere  mul- 
tiplic<ation  of  numbers  in  the  next  generation. 

The  forces  involved  are  heredity,  by  means  of  which  char- 
acters are  transmitted  from  generation  to  generation ;  and  varia- 
tion, through  the  agency  of  which  new  characters  are  introduced. 
The  natural  tendency  in  reproduction  is  toward  variation,  or  the 
production  of  unlike  individuals,  with  heredity,  acting  as  a 
brake  or  check,  opposed.  The  more  intense  the  hereditary  force, 
the  less  marked  the  variation.  The  strength  of  the  hereditary 
force,  so  far  as  a  specific  character  is  concerned,  is  determined 
by  the  extent  to  which  that  character  is  represented  in  the  an- 
cestry. The  greater  the  number  of  individual  ancestors  there 
are  which  possess  it,  and  the  greater  the  degree  in  which  it  is 
possessed,  the  stronger  the  likelihood  of  its  being  transmitted. 

Heredity  is,  therefore,  not  a  matter  which  involves  only  the 
individuals  mated,  but  all  tliose  ancestors  whose  characters  and 
hereditary  forces  the  individuals  in  question  possess.  If  the  pre- 
potency of  all  individuals  in  the  ancestry  were  equal,  the  relative 
influence  of  succeeding  generations  and  individual  ancestors 
would  be  in  accordance  with  Gralton's  law  as  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing: table :  ^ 


Effective  Heritaqe  Contributed  by  Each  Generation  and  by  Each  Separate  An- 
cestor According  to  the  Law  of  Ancestral  Heredity  as  Stated  by  Galton. 

Generation 
backward 

Effective  contri- 
bution of 
each  generation 

Number  of  ances- 
tors involved 

Effective  contri- 
bution   of 
each  ancestor 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

}4  or  0.5 

H  or  (0.5)2 

1/8  or  (0.5)' 

1/16  or  (0.5)< 

1/32  or  (0.5)5 

2 

4 

8 

16 

32 

1^  or  25.0% 
1/16  or  6.25%, 
1/64  or  1.56  +  % 
1/256  or  0.39  +  % 
1/1024  or  0.09  +  % 

*  Davenport,  "  The  Principles  of  Breeding. " 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  181 

There  are  usually  a  few  individual  ancestors  who,  by  their 
great  prepotency,  dominate  the  ancestry  and  have  more  than 
their  regular  fractional  influence  in  determining  the  nature  of 
the  progeny.  The  more  of  such  impressive  ancestors  there  are, 
provided  their  impressiveness  is  along  the  same  line,  the  stronger 
the  transmission  of  their  characters  will  become.  Line,  or  in- 
breeding, is  practiced  with  this  in  view,  the  same  individuals 
being  used  as  many  times  as  possible,  thus  intensifying  the 
hereditary  transmission  of  their  characters. 

The  germ  plasm,  representing  the  union  of  the  two  sex  cells, 
is  the  physical  basis  of  heredity.  It  represents  both  the  char- 
acters of  the  ancestry  which  are  dominant  in  this  generation,  and 
will  therefore  be  manifested  by  the  individual  developed  from 
the  germ  plasm,  and  the  potential  characters  of  the  entire  an- 
cestry, which  may  remain  recessive  in  this  generation  and  not 
be  manifested  in  this  particular  individual,  but  may,  in  the  next 
succeeding  generations,  become  dominant,  some  in  one  indi- 
vidual descendant  and  some  in  another.  Thus  the  unlikeness  of 
brothers  may  be  accounted  for. 

Transmission  is,  therefore,  not  from  the  individual  parent 
but  from  the  ancestry  through  the  parent.  The  individual  mani- 
fests but  a  part  of  the  characters  which  he  inherits,  and  is  con- 
sequently capable  of  transmitting  characters  which  he  himself 
does  not  possess.  All  the  possibilities  of  transmission  can  be 
learned  only  by  a  study  of  tlie  ancestry.  Unkno^v^l  individuals 
in  the  ancestry  introduce  unknown  possibilities  into  the  progeny, 
hence  the  advantage  of  the  pure-bred  parent,  the  known  excel- 
lence of  whose  ancestry  is  established.  A  superior  but  short-bred 
individual  may  happen  to  manifest  all  the  good  qualities  of  his 
or  her  ancestors  but  transmit  none  of  them.  A  lack  of  uniformity 
in  the  ancestry  is  sure  to  result  in  a  miscellaneous  progeny. 
However,  registration  and  pure  breeding  are  not  sufficient,  as 
inferiority  possessed  in  uniform  degree  by  the  ancestors  will 
render  the  progeny  of  a  correspondingly  low  order  of  merit;  and 
even  some  pure-bred  and  registered  horses  are  inferior  in  both 
individuality  and  anccstiy. 

Pedigree  is  but  a  record  of  the  ancestry,  and  the  value  of  the 
pedigree,  provided  it  is  complete  in  recording  all  ancestors  of 


182  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

the  first  five  or  six  generations,  is  in  proportion  to  the  merit  of 
the  individuals  recorded. 

Prepotency  is  the  breeding  power  of  a  stallion  or  mare, 
measured  by  the  degree  witli  which  their  likeness  is  transmitted 
to  their  get.  It  should  be  distinguished  from  fecundity,  which 
is  the  reproductive  power,  measured  by  the  regularity  with 
which  progeny  are  begotten  by  the  sire  or  produced  by  the  dam. 
Prepotency  is  determined  by  the  uniformity  of  the  ancestry, 
which,  in  turn,  is  most  intensively  insured  by  line  and  inbreed- 
ing. There  is,  furthermore,  a  difference  in  the  prepotency  of 
individuals  similarly  bred. 

Fecundity  is  marked  in  certain  families,  showing  its  hered- 
itary and  transmissible  nature,  and  is  frequently  associated  with 
longevity.     The  individual  element  is  also  a  factor  in  fecundity. 

Line  breeding  is  the  mating  of  tsvo  individuals  having  a 
common  ancestor  but  a  few  generations  removed.  It  is  prac- 
ticed for  the  purpose  of  intensifying  tlie  hereditaiy  force  derived 
from  certain  individuals.     It  is  a  compromise  on  inbreeding. 

Inbreeding  is  the  mating  of  brother  and  sister,  sire  and 
daughter,  son  and  dam,  thus  eliminating  all  but  the  blood  from 
certain  individuals.     It  is  rarely  practiced  by  horse  breeders. 

Cross-breeding  is  the  mating  of  pure-bred  individuals  but 
of  different  breeds.  Indiscriminate  cross-breeding  is  to  be  con- 
demned, but  intelligently  conducted  it  is  justifiable  for  certain 
purposes,  as  in  the  production  of  hunters  in  this  country.  Cross- 
breeding has  the  effect  of  producing  variation.  The  more  radical 
the  cross  the  more  extreme  and  uncertain  the  variation.  It  is 
resorted  to  for  several  purposes :  (1)  Either  to  restore  vigor  and 
fecundity  to  stock  that  has  been  bred  too  long  in  one  line  or 
under  the  same  environment;  (2)  to  graft  on  one  breed  some 
desirable  characters  of  another;  (3)  to  blend,  permanently,  the 
breed  characters  of  two  breeds ;  or  simply  to  combine  these  char- 
acters in  the  progeny  of  one  generation.  To  this  end  it  may 
consist  either  of  making  a  single  infusion  of  the  blood  of  an 
alien  breed,  as  the  Thoroughbred  cross  on  the  Standardbred ;  of 
making  cross-breds  the  basis  of  a  new  breed,  as  in  the  foundation 
of  the  French  Coach  from  the  demi  sang ;  or  continuing  to  cross 
breed  without  interbreeding  the  cross  breeds,  as  in  the  production 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  183 

of  the  original  demi  sang  (French  half-breed)  for  army  service; 
also  in  the  production  of  hunters. 

Most  uniform  results  are  obtained  when  the  hereditary  tend- 
encies of  the  two  breeds  crossed  incline  in  the  same  general 
direction,  as  in  mating  a  Standardbred  and  a  Saddle  horse,  or  a 
Thoroughbred  with  either,  and  are  least  satisfactory  when  radi- 
cally opposed  hereditary  forces  are  united,  as  in  breeding  a 
trotter  to  a  Shire.  Such  extreme  crosses  may  prohibit  any  blend 
of  characters  and  often  result  in  a  colt  possessed  of  a  draft 
horse  head  and  body  on  a  trotter's  legs  and  feet,  or  some  similar 
combination  of  the  extreme  characters  of  each. 

Cross-breeding  was  attended  by  much  greater  advantages 
during  the  formative  periods  of  our  breeds  than  can  be  claimed 
for  it  at  the  present  time.  With  a  particular  breed  especially 
well  adapted  to  almost  all  requirements,  there  is  little  excuse  for 
mixing  them  up. 

Some  of  the  renovating  effects  of  cross-breeding  may  be  se- 
cured, yet  the  identity  and  integrity  of  the  breed  maintained,  by 
resorting  to  the  so-called  climatic  out-cross,  the  mating  of  indi- 
viduals of  the  same  breed  but  reared  under  different  conditions 
of  environment,  as  English  and  American  or  Australian  Thor- 
oughbreds, or  Kentucky  and  California  Standardbreds.  The 
most  extreme  system  of  crossing  involves  species  instead  of 
breeds,  and  is  called  hybridization. 

Equine  hybrids  are  the  mule  and  the  zebroid.  The  common 
ancestor  within  the  genus,  in  tliis  case,  is  so  extremely  remote 
as  to  render  the  hybrids  sterile.  Bovine  hybrids,  however,  are 
more  or  less  completely  fertile,  the  supposition  being  that  their 
common  ancestor  was  more  proximate. 

The  nick,  commonly  referred  to  by  horse  breeders,  is  a 
mating  resulting  especially  favorably  in  a  foal  superior  to  either 
parent.  It  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  a  special  affinity  of  hereditary- 
forces  which  results  in  a  most  harmonious  blend  or  union.  A 
mare  may  produce  good  colts  to  the  service  of  one  stallion,  but 
mating  with  another  stallion  of  equal  merit  as  a  sire  may  result 
in  utter  failure,  so  far  as  the  character  of  the  get  is  concerned. 

Atavism  or  reversion  is  the  reappearance  of  the  type  of  a 
remote  ancestor  or  a  harking  back  to  a  preexisting  form.    It  is 


184  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

most  likely  to  follow  hybridization,  and  is  exemplified  by  the  line 
back  and  leg  strii:)es  commonly  seen  on  mules. 

A  pure  bred  is,  practically,  one  whose  sire  and  dam  are  both 
registered.  The  "  purity  "  of  the  breeding  depends  upon  the 
eligibility  rules  of  the  respective  registry  associations.  Lit- 
erally, a  pure  bred  is  one  in  whom  there  is  no  trace  of  alien 
blood,  but  such  a  degree  of  purity  is  approached  only  by  the 
breeds  of  greatest  antiquitj^,  as  the  Thoroughbred  and  the  Arab. 

Grading  up  is  the  mating  of  common  bred  mares  to  pure  bred 
stallions,  or  the  reverse,  producing  half-breds.  By  mating  the 
half-breds  back  to  pure  breds,  of  the  same  breed,  the  percentage 
increase  of  the  pure  blood  will  follow  the  proportions  of  three- 
quarters,  seven-eighths,  and  so  on,  for  each  successive  generation. 
A  horse  so  bred  is  called  a  grade,  and  the  greater  the  number  of 
generations  through  whicli  the  grading-up  process  has  been  car- 
ried, the  higher  the  grade. 

A  mongrel  or  scrub  is  one  whose  fractional  breed  identity 
c-annot  be  established. 

Top  cross  refers  to  the  male  line  of  ancestors — the  sire's  sire, 
his  sire,  and  thus  on  back. 

Dams. — First,  second,  third,  and  fourth  dams  represent  the 
female  line  of  ancestors — the  dam's  dam,  her  dam,  etc. 

Brothers  in  blood  are  the  progeny  of  mating  full  brothers 
-\\ith  full  sisters,  tlie  same  stallion  with  full  sisters  or  the  same 
mare  with  full  brothers.  In  each  case  the  mating  results  in  in- 
dividuals whose  pedigrees  after  the  first  generation  are  identical. 

Pedigree  and  Studbook  Registration. — In  order  to  keep 
pedigree  records  complete  and  accurate,  as  well  as  reliable  and 
authentic,  registry  associations  representing  the  different  breeds 
have  been  formed.  Entries  are  made  in  either  alphabetical  or 
numerical  order,  and  show  the  name,  date  of  foaling,  description, 
breeder,  and  owner  of  the  horse,  with  the  name  and  number  of 
sire,  and  name,  number,  and  usually  some  of  the  breeding  of 
the  dam.  These  records  are  published  in  book  form  at  more  or 
less  regular  periods,  annually,  if  the  association  does  sufficient 
business,  and  are  available  to  any  one  at  a  nominal  charge. 

Transfers  of  ownership  of  registered  horses  are  required  to 
be  recorded  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  all  records  up  to  date. 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  185 

A  pedigree  certificate  of  registration  (Fig.  120)  has  no  nego- 
tiable value  unless  properly  issued  and  executed  by  the  officers 
of  the  association  whose  seal  and  signature  it  bears.  Its  value, 
even  then,  is  contingent  upon  the  standing  of  the  association. 
Formerly  an  accredited  list  of  studbooks  was  issued  and  vouched 
for  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  but  their 
authorization  has  since  been  withdrawn,  and  the  standing  of  the 
different  associations  is  based  on  the  personnel  of  their  officers 
and  members. 

The  eligibility  rules  for  registry  are  (lra^\Ti  up  by  the  asso- 
ciations themselves  and  are  not  uniform  in  their  requirements. 
The  term  '^  pure-bred,'^  as  applied  to  the  different  breeds,  has 
a  significance  that  is  arbitrarily  detennined  by  the  respective 
associations.  For  instance,  a  horse  may  be  '^  pure-bred  "  on  the 
basis  of  eligibility  to  registiy  in  the  French  Draft  Studbook  yet 
be  ineligible  to  the  Percheron  Studbook,  and  therefore  of  impure 
Perchcron  breeding.  In  the  same  way  a  "  pure-bred  "  Morgan 
may  not  be  eligible  to  Standard  registration  and,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  may  possess  but  a  small  percentage  of  Morgan  blood,  on 
account  of  the  open  nature  of  the  Morgan  register. 

When  a  pure-bred,  registered  horse  or  mare  is  bought  for 
breeding  purposes,  the  pedigree  certificate  often  plays  a  more 
important  part  in  the  transaction  than  the  horse  itself.  The 
real  value  of  such  a  horse  lies  in  the  blood  lines  which  he  is  capa- 
ble of  transmitting,  and  no  just  claim  to  these  blood  lines  can  bo 
made  unless  verified  by  a  pedigree  certificat-e.  Title  to  breeding 
can  be  conveyed  by  no  other  means.  Many  pure-bred  stallions 
arc  deprived  of- the  full  credit  to  which  they  are  entitled  through 
the  carelessness  or  indifference  of  OAvners  in  keeping  up  records 
and  transfers. 

Duplicate  pedigree  registry  certificates  can  be  secured  upon 
application  to  the  secretaries  of  the  associations  and  by  sub- 
mitting satisfactory  evidence  that  the  original  has  been  lost  or 
destroyed. 

EUgihility  to  registration  is  established  by  conforming  to  the 
rules  of  entry  of  the  registry  associations.  These  rules  are  not 
unifomi  in  the  different  assr)ciations,  nor  are  they  fixed,  but  are 
subject  to  change  whenever  authorized  by  vote  of  the  association. 


186 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES 


187 


// ^^''y>>yyy  J-   /jr/^//ju/// /j//^r  ^yy  y/y-'/M^  ////.///////////>// 


« 


,>]^^x^ 


jt*?--tiji'iii?A'^4-'-  "•*^- 


///  //^^    ///f/^/f    ry  /yu    ////// A/z.^f /■  /'/■//^/z   yy^    /////y  y/z/t /'  r/ yy^ ^  l'  > /// 

^ff  ft  y/ /zz//  /f  //y/.j/f //// ///  /y*  ' y///< / //ff// .  y/z/ry /// /y 

/A/z/ .  /zfYy     ///////  ///y    y/y///.^///:y  r/  ,v/ /     z///^/ //^////     y/z//'/ 


:l;  i:.:  i: 


188  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

Revision  of  the  rules  is  generally  in  the  direction  of  increased 
requirements  and  is  justified  in  the  case  of  comparatively  new 
or  young  breeds  which  have  increased  in  numbers  to  a  point 
where  the  old  and  more  liberal  rules  are  no  longer  necessary.  The 
American  Trotting  Registry  Association  has  already  dropped 
rules  which  during  the  formative  perio<^l  of  the  breed  were  essen- 
tial. It  is  reported  that  they  contemplate  further  tighteniug 
up  tlieir  requirements  by  elimination  of  tlie  "  standard  by  per- 
formance "  clause. 

Stallion  Legislation. — Stallion  license  laws  have  been  passed 
by  a  numlx  r  of  the  States.  Because  of  the  much  longer  time  and 
greater  capital  involved  in  the  breeding  of  horses  than  of  other 
classes  of  li\^  stock,  some  legal  regulation  of  the  standing  of 
stallions  f  of  public  service,  having  in  view  the  protection  of  tlie 
mare  owr .^r  and  the  promotion  of  the  interests  of  the  good  bi-eed- 
ing  sires,  is  important.  The  idea  is  not  new ;  all  foreign  coun- 
tries in  which  horse  breeding  has  made  any  great  advancement 
have  either  patronized  or  protected  the  horse  breeding  interests 
by  statute.    The  French  systeui  is  perhaps  the  most  elaborate. 

The  Fren-ch  System, — All  breeding  stallions  in  France  are 
either  oT\nied  by  the  government  or  have  government  authority 
to  stand  for  service.  All  privately  owned  stallions  which  are 
accepted  for  service  must  be  free  from  roaring  and  moon  blind- 
ness or  periodic  ophthalmia,  as  detennined  by  inspection  to  Avliich 
they  are  required  to  submit,  aud  this  fact  is  attested  by  the 
star  branded  on  their  necks.  Then  they  are  classified  according 
to  merit.  Those  of  the  l^est  class  are  designated  as  "  approved/^^^ 
and  many  of  them  are  liberally  subsidized  in  order  that  they  may 
be  made  available  to  all  owners  of  high  class  mares ;  those  which 
are  not  quite  up  to  the  requirements  for  approval  but  are  yet 
desirable  sires  are  classed  as  "  authorized  " ;  while  all  others 
which  have  passed  the  veterinary  inspection  covering  roaring 
and  moon  blindness  are  simply  ''  certified."  The  stallions  from 
the  government  ^'  haras  "  are  systematically  distributed  through- 
out the  breeding  districts  during  the  season. 

Ideals  in  stallion  license  laws  differ,  there  being  a  marked 
lack  of  uniformity  in  the  provisions  of  those  enacted  in  the  dif- 
ferent States.     A  stallion  may  be  licensed  to  stand  for  sen^ice 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  189 

in  one  State  while  barred  from  service  in  another.  Local  con- 
ditions govern,  of  course,  in  the  case  of  each  State,  but  there  can 
hardly  be  sufficient  difference  in  the  prevailing  conditions  to- 
warrant  such  a  variety  of  laws. 

The  objects  of  stallion  laws  should  be  (1)  to  protect  the  mare 
owner,  by  preventing  misrepresentation  of  the  breeding  or  the 
soundness  of  the  stallion;  (2)  to  protect  the  owners  of  superior 
breeding  stallions  by  eliminating  or  discouraging  the  use  of  infe- 
rior competitors ;  (3)  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  mare  owners 
by  encouraging  the  purchase  and  standing  of  better  stallions ; 
and  (4)  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  stallion  0A\Tier  by  edu- 
cating the  mar©  owner  to  be  discriminating  in  his  patronage. 

The  first  object  is  best  insured  by  requiring  an  examination 
of  the  pedigree  registry  certificates  and  a  uniform  inspection, 
by  one  board  or  commission,  of  every  stallion  for  which  applica- 
tion for  license  is  made,  all  stallions  found  acceptable  to  be  class- 
ified according  to  breeding,  whether  pure-bred,  grade  or  scrub, 
sound  or  unsound,  and  said  classification  to  be  specified  clearly 
in  the  license  certificate. 

Purity  of  Breeding. — Pure-bred  is  such  an  arbitrary  term, 
contingent  upon  so  many  conditions,  that  it  is  more  accurate  and 
just  in  many  cases  to  certify  a  stallion  to  be  registered  or  unreg- 
istered rather  than  of  pure  breeding  or  not  of  pure  breeding.  In 
many  instances  ineligibility  to  registry  may  be  strictly  technical, 
due  to  neglect  on  the  part  of  previous  owners,  and  may  not  in 
any  way  alter  the  purity  of  breeding  of  the  stallion  or  his  value 
as  a  sire.  The  fact  that  the  horse  is  unregistered,  however,  can- 
not be  disputed. 

Hereditary  unsoundness  is  such  an  elusive  condition,  so  diffi- 
cult of  prognosis,  that  to  specify  just  what  conditions  of  unsound- 
ness shall,  by  their  presence,  disqualify  for  sei'v^ice,  will  necessi- 
tate the  elimination  of  many  individuals  of  much  breeding  value, 
although  their  get  may  be  in  no  way  predisposed  to  the  unsound- 
ness which  they  themselves  possess.  The  same  unsoundness  may 
be  quite  regularly  transmitted  in  one  case  while  perhaps  never 
appearing  to  be  hereditary  in  another.  The  most  careful  obser- 
vation and  inquiry  warrant  the  conclusion  that  spavin  and  roar- 
ing, for  instance,  can  only  be  regarded  as  of  an  hereditary  nature 


190  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

when  their  transmission  has  actually  been  demonstrated  in  the 
progeny. 

The  existence  of  a  defective  confonnation  is  to  be  regarded 
witli  as  much  apprehension  as  the  actual  unsoundness  itself, 
especially  if  the  latter  be  unaccompanied  by  an  apparent  pre- 
disposing cause.  In  making  such  a  determination,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  some  unsoundnesses,  as  roaring,  may  not 
manifest  themselves,  even  though  transmitted,  until  such  age  that 
the  horse  in  question  may  have  been  lost  track  of,  although,  as  a 
rule,  a  sire  of  colts  that  develop  unsoundness  with  any  degree 
of  uniformity  can  soon  be  detected. 

Suitable  Laws. — Any  law  to  be  workable  and  meet  the  varied 
conditions,  as  they  exist  in  most  States,  should  have  some  flexi- 
bility in  its  application,  permitting  arbitrary  consideration  of 
each  case  by  those  in  charge  of  its  administration.  With  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  registered,  sound  stallions  available  to  the 
breeders  of  a  community,  a  law  might  be  very  strict  in  its  re- 
quirements as  to  breeding  and  soundness,  but  there  are  localities 
where  the  interest  in  horse  breeding  is  such  as  to  need  a  boost 
and  is  not  capable  of  withstanding  much  of  a  knock.  As  long 
as  the  State  itself  is  not  empowered  or  equipped  to  place  there 
a  good  stallion,  but  must  depend  upon  private  o^\Tiership  for 
whatever  breeding  there  is  done,  stallions  that  should  be  barred 
from  service,  if  in  competition  with  good  sires,  may  be  permitted 
to  stand,  if  not  doing  more  harm  than  good.  Meanwhile,  the 
efforts  of  the  stallion  board  or  commission  may  be  devoted  to  an 
educational  campaign  which  will  ultimately  bring  better  stallions 
into  that  distpiet.^ 

<CDifficult  PoTitts^It  is  most  difficult  to  establish  the  fact 
that  ast^ttmn  is  uimt  for  service  on  account  of  an  existing  un- 
soundness or  a  short  pedigree,  while  his  get  are  annually  selling 
for  more  than  the  colts  of  other  stallions  fully  accredited  on  the 
basis  of  strict  stallion  law  requirements.  Not  until  the  poorest 
pure-bred  is  superior  as  a  sire  to  the  best  grade  and  until  much 
more  is  known  of  hereditary  unsoundness,  can  we  consistently 
make  legal  discrimination  against  all  grade  and  all  unsound 
stallions,  without  effecting  detriment  to  the  breeding  industry. 
Elimination  of  the  unfit  is  only  one  means  of  protecting  and  pro- 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  191 

moting  the  interests  of  the  fit,  and  what  constitutes  fitness  itself 
is  more  or  less  arbitrarily  determined  by  local  conditions. 

The  average  of  merit  of  stallions  standing  for  service  is  so 
low  that  it  will  take  time  to  attain  to  the  theoretical  or  ideal  in 
actual  practice.  France,  with  her  system  of  government  owner- 
ship, can  afford  to  be  much  more  independent  and  dictatorial 
than  our  States,  which  are  dependent  on  private  enterprise  and 
capital  for  whatever  breeding  there  is  done.  Too  oppressive  re- 
strictions may  be  so  discouraging  as  to  destroy  the  business  alto^ 
gether.  An  individual  or  company,  for  instance,  may  invest 
$2,500  in  a  two-year-old  draft  stallion,  which  at  the  time  of  pur- 
chase passes  an  examination  for  soundness  and  is  accompanied 
by  a  registry  certificate.  In  the  course  of  a  year  or  two  this  colt 
may  develop  an  unsoundness  or  some  fraud  may  be  detected  in 
his  pedigree  registry  certificate.  To  require  his  retirement  from 
service  on  either  of  these  accounts,  would  entail  a  most  unjust 
financial  loss  upon  his  owners,  and  would  undoubtedly  dissuade 
them  from  ever  making  a  similar  investment. 

The  Attitude  of  Mare  Owners. — The  mare  owners,  while 
not  directly  named  in  stallion  license  laws,  should  receive  a 
share  of  the  consideration  of  the  administrative  boards.  They 
really  hold  the  key  to  the  whole  situation,  in  the  discrimination 
they  show  and  the  amount  of  the  fees  they  will  allow  in  their 
patronage  of  stallions.  Stallions  capable  of  becoming  good  sires 
are  costly,  and  their  fee  must  be  sufficient  to  insure  some  return 
on  the  investment.  With  a  liberal  policy  adopted  by  the  mare 
owners,  there  need  be  no  dearth  of  good  sires.  The  scrub  is 
costly  to  patronize  though  the  fee  is  low.  As  long  as  the  scrub 
can  command  his  share  of  the  patronage,  there  is  little  to  induce 
one  to  invest  in  a  first-class  stallion.  It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note 
that  the  average  stud  fee  prevailing  in  those  States  from  which 
the  bulk  of  the  market  supply  of  horses  of  this  country  is  drawn  is 
about  double  that  of  those  districts  where  the  horse  business  is 
given  up  as  unprofitable. 

'No  law  can  compel  mare  owners  to  patronize  superior  stal- 
lions, nor  is  it  constitutional  to  deny  them  the  patronage  of  the 
inferior  ones,  unless  they  are  proven  to  be  an  absolute  menace 
to  the  industry.     Education  is  the  only  solution,  and  that  is 


192  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

%\dtliin  the  province  of,  and  should  be  vigorously  prosecuted  by, 
the  licensing  officials. 

The  Community  System  of  Breeding. — There  are  many 
advantages  in  the  breeders  of  a  community  getting  together  and 
working  to  a  common  end  within  the  same  breed.  Such  a  system 
makes  possible  the  use  of  a  stallion  which  no  individual  member 
of  the  comnmnity  could  o^vn.  It  promotes  cooperation  and 
mutual  helpfulness,  which  in  time  revert  to  the  benefit  of  all 
concerned  in  the  way  of  a  district  reputation  for  horses  of  what- 
ever type  produced.  Buyers  are  thus  attracted  where  they  could 
not  be  induced  to  come  to  see  but  a  few  widely  scattered  horses 
or  colts,  in  the  hands  of  jealous  owners  who  were  not  disposed 
to  reveal  the  whereabouts  of  other  possibilities  in  case  their  own 
failed  to  meet  the  buyers'  requirements.  Individual  advantages 
are  subordinate  to  the  interests  of  the  community,  the  general 
policy  being  to  insure  the  buyers  finding  the  horses  sought,  each 
owner  helping  his  neighbor  to  make  a  sale,  in  case  he  himself 
has  nothing  to  suit.  Once  satisfied,  the  buyers  are  most  likely 
to  return  when  those  who  Avere  unable  to  sell  the  first  time  may 
have  their  inning. 

A^^len  different  types  and  breeds  are  represented  in  a  com- 
munity, partisan  sentiment  is  almost  certain  to  prevail.  Each 
breeder  cannot  accomplish  alone  what  might  be  possible  by  the 
combined  effort  of  all,  and  their  offerings  in  any  one  line  are  not 
sufficient  to  attract  the  best  buyers. 

The  Breeding  Stud. — A  horse  breeding  establishment  is 
spoken  of  either  as  a  stud  or  stud  farm,  the  breeding  sire  as  the 
stud  horse  (Fig.  121). 

The  equipment  of  a  stud  farm  should  consist  of  comfortable 
and  hvgienic  quarters,  productive  pastures,  preferably  underlaid 
with  limestone  and  provided  with  ample  shade  and  running 
water,  safe  fences,  and  competent  help. 

QuaHers. — Breeding  stock  does  not  do  well  in  close  confine- 
ment, but  dry,  light,  roomy,  loose  boxes  or  sheds,  well  bedded, 
should  be  provided,  to  which  the  hoi*sos  may  have  ready  access 
voluntarily,  if  not  regularly  stabled.  For  stallions,  box  stalls 
opening  into  paddocks,  the  doors  fastened  back,  are  best;  mares 
are  better  cared  for  in  the  same  way  if  practicable,  although  they 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  193 

do  fairly  well  in  open  sheds  and  lots,  if  too  many  are  not  turned 
together  and  there  are  no  quarrelsome  ones  in  the  lot.  For  draft 
mares  that  are  worked  regularly,  the  paddock  would  be  superflu- 
ous, but  they  should  be  allowed  loose  boxes  in  which  they  can  lie 
more  comfortably  as  pregnancy  advances. 

Maternity  stalls  may  bo  kept  purposely  for  foaling,  but  as 
mares  are  more  finicky  than  other  females  at  parturition  time 
there  is  some  advantage,  so  far  as  their  peace  of  mind  is  con- 
cerned, in  keeping  them  regTilarly  in  the  quarters  that  they  are  to 
be  permitted  to  foal  in,  alongside  of  their  accustomed  mates. 

Pastures.- — The  greatest  horse  breeding  districts  are  char- 
acterized by  luxuriant  pastures,  a  most  important  feature  of  any 


Fig.  121. — A  breeding  stud.  In  the  work  ring  are  two  Hackney  stallions  in  the  fore- 
ground, two  Hackney  pony  stallions  to  the  left,  two  show  pony  mares,  the  product  of  the 
stud,  on  the  right;  show  horses,  brood  mares  and  foals,  weaning  colts  and  fillies  in  the  back- 
ground.   The  stallion  stable  is  on  the  right,  the  quarters  for  marea  and  colta  on  the  left. 

breeding  farm.  Size  and  early  maturity  are  sought  in  all  but  the 
ponies,  and  since  the  body  is  G  to  9  per  cent  bone,  and  bone  is  00  to 
70  per  cent  ash,  and  80  per  cent  of  the  ash  is  calcium  phosphate,  a 
limestone  foundation  is  a  pasture  essential.  The  seeding  should 
include  such  variety  of  grasses  and  legumes  as  to  keep  the  forage 
coming  all  through  the  season.  Pastures  should  be  well  drained, 
not  too  rough  or  stony ;  all  dangerous  places,  such  as  quarry  holes, 
pits,  bogs,  and  stump  lots,  should  be  well  guarded.  Shade,  run- 
ning water,  and  possibly  a  fly  flap  complete  the  pasture  requisites. 
Fences  should  be  at  least  four  and  one-half  feet  high,  strong, 
and  of  material  and  construction  affording  no  opportunity  for 
the  horses  to  be  snagged  or  cut.  The  post  and  rail,  common  in  the 
East  and  South,  is  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  horse  fence.    If 


194  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

any  barbed  wire  is  used,  it  should  be  the  top  strand  kept  tight. 
The  ideal  fence  has  been  described  as  ''  hog  tight,  bull  strong,  and 
horse  high  '' — such  is  the  post  and  rail,  four  rails  high. 

THE    STALLION 

Selection  of  the  sire  is  the  most  important  single  step  pertain- 
ing to  the  establishment  of  a  breeding  stud.  His  is  the  most 
potent  influence  for  either  good  or  bad  in  the  operation.  Like 
the  bull,  he  is  more  than  half  the  l^erd.  On  account  of  his  being 
the  parent  of  so  many  individual  offspring  in  a  given  season,  his 
influence  is  much  more  extended  than  that  of  the  mares.  It 
would  require  the  use  of  as  many  superior  mares  as  a  stallion  may 
beget  foals  to  accomplish  the  results  that  might  be  attained  with  a 
single  stallion,  and  then  the  progeny  would  be  much  less  uniform. 
In  the  case  of  an  individual,  his  dam  may  have  as  much  to  do  with 
determining  his  merit  as  the  sire,  and  it  is  important  that  only 
good  mares  be  bred,  but  the  most  practical  method  of  improving 
the  mares  of  future  generations  is  to  grade  up  by  means  of  a  su- 
perior sire.  But  one  parent  being  pure-bred,  his  or  her  characters 
will  dominate  in  the  offspring,  since  purity  of  breeding  is  a  cause 
of  prepotency.  As  a  rule,  the  pure-bred  parent  will  be  the  sire. 
In  selecting  a  stallion,  whether  it  be  to  head  a  select  band  of  pure- 
bred mares  or  to  patronize  with  but  a  single  mare,  he  must  be 
considered  from  three  angles, — as  an  individual,  as  representing 
and  transmitting  the  characters  of  an  ancestry,  and  as  the  pro- 
genitor of  a  future  generation. 

As  an  individual,' he  should  be  just  what  is  desired  in  his 
get,  i.e.^  of  the  right  type,  good  conformation  and  sound,  being 
strongest  in  those  respects  in  which  the  mare  or  mares  with 
which  he  is  to  be  mated  are  most  deficient  (Fig.  122).  Further- 
more, he  must  be  masculine  in  appearance,  possessing  that  de- 
velopment of  forehand,  hardness  of  feature,  and  boldness  of 
demeanor  which  bespeak  the  impressive  sire. 

Testing  Stallions. — The  ancestry  is  the  antecedent  of  the 
progeny  and  should  be  carefully  studied  in  order  to  forecast  the 
character  of  the  progeny.  Just  as  the  proof  of  the  pudding  is  in 
the  eating,  so  the  real  value  of  a  sire  cannot  be  determined  with- 
out an  inspection  of  his  get.  They  alone  are  sufficient  either  to 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES 


Figs.  122a  and  122b. — A  successful  sire  of  the  right  type,  good  conformation,  sound, 
and  masculine  in  appearance,  whose  prepotency  is  demonstrated  by  the  trueness  to  type 
and  uniform  excellence  of  his  get. 


196  THE  PRINICIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

commend  or  condemn  the  individnal  as  a  breeder.  Xone  but  a 
proven  sire  should  be  put  at  the  head  of  a  breeding  stud.  The  in- 
feriority of  a  horse  as  a  breeder  may  not  be  manifested  until  his 
get  are  fairly  mature ;  in  the  meantime,  the  best  mares  have  been 
bred  to  him,  perhaps  for  more  than  one  season,  and  the  damage 
wrought  in  the  stock  as  well  as  the  time  lost  may  take  generations 
to  efface.  The  prospective  sire  should  be  tried  out  in  a  limited 
way  with  a  few  mares  before  being  trusted  in  premier  place.  It 
is  only  for  this  purpose  that  the  use  of  stud  colts  is  justifiable. 
,  Early  sem^ice  cannot  improve  the  development  of  the  colt,  and 
unless  carefully  managed  may  be  harmful,  yet  from  the  owner's 
point  of  view  it  is  often  desirable  to  know,  early,  something  of  the 
youngster's  ability  as  a  sire.  To  this  end  he  may  be  used  as  a  two- 
or  a  three-year-old  on  a  few  selected  mares,  all  to  be  served  in  a 
short  period,  so  that  there  may  be  no  interruption  in  his  growth. 

The  care  and  management  of  the  stallion  through  the  breed- 
ing season  may  be  summarized  in  a  discussion  of  the  feeding,  ex- 
ercise, regulation  of  service,  and  grooming.  A  mutual  balance 
between  food  and  exercise  is  the  key  to  condition  of  the  stallion  in 
service.  A  most  effective  prescription  employed  by  a  prominent 
veterinarian  in  one  of  the  most  extensive  horse  breeding  districts 
of  this  country  is,  "  Halve  the  ration  and  double  the  exercise 
when  the  stallion  is  not  giving  a  vigorous,  sure  service." 

Feeding. — Vigor  and  tone  are  secured  for  the  sire  by  a  ration 
rich  in  tissue-building,  protein  and  ash,  but  with  little  of  the 
fat  forming  starches,  the  whole  to  be  counterbalanced  by  exercise 
of  some  form  in  the  open  air.  ~Ro  better  grain  ration  can  be 
offered  than  oats,  but  for  the  sake  of  variety  and  relish  there  may 
be  substituted  a  little  barley  or  corn,  and  bran  is  always  a  valu- 
able supplement  to  any  grain  ration,  since  it  relaxes  the  system 
generally,  corrects  or  prevents  digestive  disorders,  and  furnishes 
an  abundance  of  bone  and  tissue-building  material. 

The  draft  stallion  is  most  likely  to  be  the  victim  of  a  stimu- 
lating ration  that  is  not  counterbalanced  by  sufficient  exercise. 
The  demand  for  ton  horses  is  responsible  for  a  system  of  fitting 
which  is  not  intended  to  insure  foals.  Many  draft  stallions 
offered  for  show  or  sale  are  in  anything  but  breeding  condition. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  should  not  be  considered  necessary  to 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  197 

reduce  a  draft  stallion  to  anytliing  like  race  horse  condition  in 
order  to  insure  virility.  It  is  natural  for  a  draft  horse  to  be  fat 
in  a  degTee  which  would  be  abnonnal  in  a  road  horse,  and  he  is 
not  at  his  best  in  any  other  condition.  There  is  what  might  be 
termed  an  optimum  or  best  normal  weight  for  any  horse,  i.e.,  his 
weight  when  in  normal  condition  as  to  flesh,  muscular  tone,  and 
vigor.  If  that  can  be  determined  and  then  maintained  by  estab- 
lishing a  balance  between  feed  consumed  and  exercise  taken,  the 
greatest  virility  may  be  expected. 

Exercise. — If  a  horse  is  gaining  over  his  normal  weight,  in- 
crease his  exercise  first,  and  if  he  continues  to  gain,  reduce  his 
ration.  If  he  falls  below  normal  weight  and  is  receiving  only 
a  reasonable  amount  of  exercise,  increase  his  ration  first,  then, 
if  necessary,  reduce  the  exercise.  But  it  is  generally  the  former 
rather  than  the  latter  condition  which  the  stud  groom  has  to 
meet.  The  old  country  practice  of  travelling  the  horse  is  one 
of  the  most  practical  means  of  solving  the  exercise  problem,  and 
is  for  that  reason  commendable,  although  there  seems  to  be  a 
prejudice  against  it  in  some  parts  of  this  country.  It  is  often 
found  practicable  to  give  the  draft  stallion  work  about  the  farm. 
If  there  is  no  such  opportunity,  he  should  be  led  or  driven  several 
miles  per  day,  but  at  a  walk.  This  is  the  draft  horse's  gait,  and 
if  a  more  ingenious  than  industrious  groom  imagines  that  he  can 
concentrate  the  benefits  of  a  long  walk  into  a  short  trot,  he  will 
find  the  results  much  in  favor  of  the  walk. 

Exercise  is  just  as  essential  to  the  best  breeding  condition  of 
tlie  light  stallion,  but  the  trotter  is  more  certain  of  his  daily  jog 
and  the  Thoroughbred  of  his  morning  gallop  than  is  the  drafter 
of  his  walk.  In  the  lighter  classes  of  stallions  there  is  not  the 
premium  placed  on  weight\which  induces  the  feeder  to  fatten  the 
horsft^bpyond  ^IL.^e»6Ql3 .     ^^^^-^ 

Regulation-  of  the  services  of  wc  stallion  is  of  vital  impor- 
tance. '^pTTrTTTrrs-dTif^TaiToji^^  such  regulation  should  be, 
but  nearly  all  agree  that  many  horses  are  misused  in  service. 
It  is  well  to  remember  that  a  horse's  success  is  not  measured  by 
the  number  of  mares  he  serves,  but  by  the  number  and  character 
of  the  colts  he  gets  in  a  given  season.     ISlo  definite  number  of 


198  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

mares  can  be  assigned  as  best  to  allow  the  horse,  since  the  num- 
ber that  can  be  properly  bred  will  depend  upon  their  distribu- 
tion through  the  season,  the  age  of  tlie  horse,  and  his  preparation 
and  fitness  for  the  work.  The  most  consen^ative  estimate  is  an 
average  of  one  service  per  day  the  season  through  for  a  mature 
horse.  However,  the  mares  do  not  always  come  in  regular  order, 
distributed  throughout  the  entire  season.  Hence,  it  often  be- 
comes necessary  to  make  two  or  even  three  covers  iri  a  single  day, 
and  this  may  be  done,  occasionally,  ^dth  no  injury  to  the  horse. 
It  should  not  be  repeated,  however. 

Grooming  is  necessary,  not  only  to  make  the  horse  more  at- 
tractive in  appearance,  but  to  assist  exercise  in  maintaining  the 
best  of  health  and  condition.  The  functions  of  the  skin  must 
be  kept  active.  A  lack  of  exercise  and  neglect  in  grooming  are 
together  responsible  for  many  serious  conditions  about  the  legs 
and  feet  of  the  big,  lymphatic  draft  stallions,  especially  those 
with  much  coarse  feather.  The  grooming  must  not  be  so  rough 
nor  severe  as  to  cause  irritation  either  of  the  skin  or  temper,  but 
it  should  be  thorough,  with  special  care  taken  to  keep  all  parts 
clean  and  free  from  any  foulness. 

THE   BROOD   MAEE 

We  have  as  yet  no  definite  information  to  show  that  the  parent 
of  either  sex  has  any  special  influence  in  determining  the  char- 
acter of  the  offs])ring  apart  from  what  is  governed  by  prepo- 
tency. The  relative  influence  of  sire  and  dam  is  apparenihj  in 
favor  of  the  sire  because  the  female  line  is  so  often  lost  or  un- 
traced.  Many  noted  families,  however,  have  been  founded  by 
females,  and  the  evidence  of  Arab  pedigrees,  which  have  been 
traced  through  the  dams  for  centuries,  demonstrates  the  impor- 
tance of  the  mare. 

The  dam  is  not  only  a  source  of  hereditary  transmission,  like 
the  sire,  but  she  serves  as  a  host  to  the  developing  foetus.  Selec- 
tion of  the  brood  mare  involves  the  same  general  consideration 
as  selection  of  the  stallion.  Her  manifestation  of  sex  character 
is  found  in  a  comparatively  light  forehand,  a  sweet,  refined  head 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES 


199 


and  neck,  and  a  matronly  appearance  throughout  (Fig.  123). 
In  order  to  sustain  the  growth  of  the  foetus  well,  she  should  be 
deep-ribbed  and  roomy,  and  somewhat  more  openly  made,  with 
more  length,  than  is  desirable  in  the  stallion.  She  should  pos- 
sess every  indication  of  capacity  and  vigor  (Fig.  124). 

Care  and  Management  of  the  Brood  Mare. — The  feed,  work, 
and  care,  at  and  after  foaling,  are  of  greatest  importance  in  con- 


FiG.  123. — A  producer — sweet,  refined,  and  feminine. 


ate 


noction  with  the  mare.     Food  and  exercise 

the  condition  of  the  mare  as  taIIU»ft*rniii'ie  suc/^ess  or  -faihirfi  in 


together,  so  re 


the  product  ion  j^^jToaL  It  is  a  matter  of  give  and  take  between 
them.  A  balance  is  manifested  by  the  condition  which  is  indi- 
cative of  the  greatest  activity  of  the  vital  functions,  i.e.,  vigor, 
expressed  in  the  clear  eje^  the  sleek  coat,  and  the  keen  appetite 
which  the  feeder  describes  as  "  hearty,''  together  with  a  general 
evidence  of  nerve  and  muscle  tone.     The  mare  in  this  condition 


200  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

will  carry  no  superfluous  flesli,  but  is  herself  sufficiently  well 
nourished  to  insure  ample  nutriment  for  the  perfect  development 
of  the  foal. 

The  ideal  conditions  for  the  brood  mare,  namely  those  in 
which  the  balance  between  feed  and  exercise  is  most  easily  main- 
tained and  the  feed  of  the  best  sort  secured,  are  those  surround- 
ing mares  at  pasture.    Fresh  air  and  sunshine,  without  exposure, 


Fig.    121. — A  brood  mare  of  i)ro\'(n  worth,  (Iccp-rihhcd  and  roomy,  with  every  indicatif 

of  capacity  and  vigor. 


freedom  to  move  about  at  will,  with  little  danger  of  slips  or 
fatigue,  and  an  abundance  of  nutritious,  succulent  forage,  fur- 
nishing the  elements  essential  to  the  growth  of  the  foal  and  the 
production  of  milk  by  the  dam,  are  the  things  nature  has  pro- 
vided at  the  season  of  the  year  when  most  females  naturally  bring 
forth  their  young.  These  can  hardly  be  improved  upon,  and  if 
they  must  be  modified  or  substituted  on  account  of  economy,  they 
should  still  be  the  standard  by  which  other  systems  are  measured. 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  201 

However,  the  average  farmer  must  either  breed  his  working 
mares  or  work  his  brood  mares.  The  question  which  confronts 
him  is  how  to  secure  natural  conditions  for  his  mares  while  per- 
forming artificial  service. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  feed  furnishes  energy^  and 
tissue-foiTQing  material,  and  tliat  the  perforaiance  of  work  re- 
quires energy  and  uses  up  tissue.  Thus  tlie  balance  between 
them  is  maintained.  The  mare  at  work  is  just  as  well  off,  in  the 
matter  of  exercise,  fresh  air,  and  sunshine,  as  the  one  at  pasture, 
but  she  has  imposed  upon  her  labor  which  demands  more  energy 
and  uses  more  tissue^building  material.  She  is  also  subject  to 
fatigue,  mechanical  injuries,  and  nervous  disturbances  that  never 
come  to  the  mare  at  pasture. 

Exercise  and  Worh. — In  general,  the  management  of  the 
brood  mare  should  have  for  its  object  the  feeding  of  such  a  ration 
as  will  supply  the  demand  for  energy  and  tissue  and  still  allow 
ample  nourishment  for  the  development  of  the  foal,  either  before 
or  after  birth,  together  with  such  a  regulation  of  the  work  as 
will  protect  the  mare  from  becoming  tired,  overheated,  or  in- 
jured in  any  way.  She  must  not  be  fretted  either  by  another 
horse  or  by  a  rough  hand,  while  heavy,  jerky  pulls,  extreme 
speed,  rough  saddle  work,  or  jumping  are  to  be  strictly  prohibited 
as  pregnancy  advances.  But  to  work  a  mare  up  to  within  a 
month  of  foaling  and  then  confine  her  in  a  stall  with  no  exercise 
whatever  is  almost  as  injurious  as  to  begin  working  her  liard 
after  ten  months'  rest,  following  breeding.  It  is  not  unusual  for 
mares  to  foal,  successfully,  while  in  the  field  at  work,  but  it  is 
safer  to  gradually  diminish  the  work,  so  that  during  the  last 
few  weeks  of  pregnancy  only  the  lightest  work  is  done  or  exercise 
in  the  yard  is  taken. 

Avoid  Extremes. — It  is  a  peculiar  fact  that,  while  the  two 
extremes  in  condition  are  both  unfavorable  to  breeding,  statistics 
indicate  that  the  birth  rate  among  nations  has  showTi  a  marked 
increase  following  devastation  by  war  and  famine,  conditions 
of  life  in  which  the  females  become  reduced  to  the  extreme  of 
low  condition.  This  w^ould  seem  to  be  in  response  to  a  natural 
law  for  the  preservation  of  the  race,  and  should  not  be  taken  to 


202  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

indicate  that  starvation  and  extremely  low  condition  are  favor- 
able to  reproduction.  It  is  tiiie  that  a  thin  mare  is  more  apt  to 
breed  than  a  pampered  one,  but  a  mare  in  low  condition  has  no 
reserve  on  which  to  draw  for  the  nourishment  and  groAHh  of 
her  colt.  Her  whole  system  is  in  an  impoverislied  condition, 
which  must  be  corrected  before  the  nutrients  will  be  available  for 
the  growth  of  the  foal. 

Feeding. — The  quality  of  the  ration  is  of  as  much  impor- 
tance as  the  quantity.  Fat  production  is  to  be  avoided,  and  the 
formation  of  blood,  muscle,  and  bone  sought  instead.  Hence,  a 
comparatively  naiTOw  ration  should  be  fed. 

ne  tendency  of  females  to  fatten  as  pregnancy  advances 
must  be  guarded,  as  mares  may  become  so  fat  as  to  interfere  with 
the  development  of  the  foal,  and  oause  abortion  or  trouble  at 
jjjrth.  Just  before  and  after  foaling,  the  ration  of  the  dam 
should  be  lightened  and  made  more  laxative  by  tlie  addition  of 
bran,  either  dry  or  in  a  mash,  to  be  continued  until  both  dam  and 
foal  have  fully  recovered  from  the  ordeal  through  which  they 
have  just  passed. 

After  Foaling. — Exercise  should  be  permitted  after  the  sys- 
tem of  the  mare  has  readjusted  itself,  but  regular  work  should 
not  be  begun  inside  of  three  weeks.  It  is  better  not  to  work  the 
mare  until  the  foal  is  weaned. 


THE    FOAL 

Navel  Infection  and  Impaction  of  the  Bowels  in  Young 
Foals. — There  are  two  active  causes  of  death  in  young  foals,  a 
better  understanding  of  which  might  matenally  reduce  the 
fatalities  ordinarily  reported  during  the  foaling  season.  One, 
perhaps  the  most  common,  is  due  to  an  impaction  in  the  bowels 
of  the  excrement  accumulated  during  the  development  prior  to 
birth.  This  material  is  called  meconium,  and  its  prompt  re- 
moval is  essential  to  the  well-being  of  the  new  born  animal. 
Mature  has  provided  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  by  giving 
to  the  fore-milk  or  colostrum,  as  it  is  called,  purgative  properties. 
Thus,  if  IsTature's  plans  are  not  interfered  with  and  the  first 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  203 

milk  is  taken,  there  is  usually  no  trouble  in  clearing  the  bowels 
after  birtk.  However,  the  dam  may  have  some  trouble  with  her 
milk  at  first,  or  the  young,  through  weakness,  may  not  get  a 
good  draft  of  fore-milk ;  in  some  cases  even,  care  is  taken  to  draw 
off  the  colostrum  before  the  young  thing  suckles,  in  the  belief 
that  it  is  unfit  to  be  taken ;  and  the  colt  suffers  accordingly.  In 
order  to  avoid  the  difficulties  arising  from  this  cause,  the  first 
care  should  be  to  insure  a  good  portion  of  the  fore-milk  for  the 
young  creature.  Then  if,  from  any  cause,  tlie  digestive  tract  has 
not  been  cleared  of  its  contents  within  twenty-four  hours,  the 
bowels  must  be  stimulated  to  action  by  a  tablespoonful  of  castor 
oil  and  a  warm  water  injection. 

The  other  cause  of  many  deaths  in  young  animals'  is  infec- 
tion with  pus  and  disease  germs  through  the  navel.  At  the 
moment  the  umbilical  cord  is  ruptured  there  is  a  direct  commu- 
nication from  without  to  some  of  the  vital  internal  organs  and 
blood  of  the  foal.  This  opening  is  later  closed  naturally  by  the 
swelling  and  final  drying  and  sloughing  off  of  the  end  of  the  cord. 
There  is  thus  a  brief  opportunity  for  the  entrance  of  bacteria 
which  may  later  affect  the  system  generally  or  locally  and 
produce  serious  results.  It  has  been-  satisfactorily  demonstrated 
that  the  so-called  navel  or  joint  ill,  in  foals,  is  due  to  organisms 
entering  through  this  channel. 

If  this  affection  has  prevailed  in  a  stable  it  would  be  well 
to  remove  pregnant  mares  to  clean,  uninfected  quarters  and 
allow  tJiem  to  foal  there.  The  new-born  foal  should  be  dropped 
only  on  fresh  litter,  and  it  would  be  safer  to  wash  the  stump 
of  the  cord  with  a  saturated  solution  of  boracic  acid  and  then 
dust  with  boric  acid  powder.  These  precautions  have  been  the 
means  of  eradicating  the  difficulty  from  many  stables  where 
deaths  had  occurred  year  after  year. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  cut  or  ligate  the  cord,  but  allow  it  to 
break  naturally,  as  it  will  do  if  left  alone.  A  torn  or  broken 
blood-vessel  will  not  bleed,  whereas,  one  that  is  cut  directly 
across  will,  and  it  takes  a  skilled  hand  and  sterilized  materials 
to  make  a  ligature  that  mil  not  do  more  harm  than  good.  If  it 
were  more  generally  known  that  the  newly  broken  umbilical  cord 


204  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

offers  a  channel  of  infection  which  may  admit  the  most  danger- 
ous bacteria,  more  care  would  be  taken  to  prevent  such  infection. 

During  the  existence  of  the  colt  as  a  suckling  some  especial 
precautions  must  be  taken  in  addition  to  those  already  men- 
tioned. The  milk  flow  must  be  maintained  by  succulent  forage, 
the  colt  must  be  fed  often,  and  the  dam  must  at  no  time  be  in 
such  a  condition  as  to  render  the  milk  injurious  to  the  foal. 

Most  breeders  advise  leaving  the  colt  in  the  stable  while  the 
dam  is  at  work,  but  others  allow  the  colt  to  follow  the  dam  to 
the  field.  The  objection  to  the  former  method  is  that  unless  the 
mare  is  returned  at  least  once  during  each  half  day  the  colt 
becomes  very  hungry,  and  when  the  mare  comes  to  him  sweat- 
ing he  gorges  himself  on  the  milk  mth  which  the  udder  is  dis- 
tended. This  milk  is  often  rendered  injurious  by  the  heated 
condition  of  the  mare,  and  it  thus  becomes  a  cause  of  serious 
digestive  disorder,  especially  when  so  much  is  taken.  It  is  a 
good  thing  to  encourage  the  colt,  as  it  grows  older,  to  take  a 
few  oats,  preferably  crushed,  from  its.  mother's  allowance,  or  a 
creep  may  be  especially  constructed  for  the  foal  to  feed  in.  If 
two  mares  and  foals  are  allowed  together,  the  youngsters  will 
foiiu  an  attachment  for  each  other  which  will  prove  of  great 
service  in  reconciling  them  to  the  weaning  process. 
<^;T'he  Next  Breedingfi^Observations  have  shown  that  a  mare 
may  be  bred  with  greater  certainty  of  success  on  the  ninth  day- 
after  foaling  than  at  any  subsequent  date.  It  is  also  known  that 
mares  which  have  their  sexual  ardor  somewhat  suppressed  by  a 
moderate  degree  of  fatigue  are  more  apt  to  conceive  than  mares 
in  an  extremely  nervous  condition  at  the  time  of  sendee.  It  is 
for  this  purpose  that  the  Arab  gives  his  mare  a  sharp  run  just 
prior  to  service. 

Breeding  Two-Year-Old  Fillies. — Tiie  advisability  of 
breeding  fillies  at  two  years  of  age  is  an  economic  question 
which  is  frequently  considered,  and  concerning  which  there 
is  a  great  deal  of  difference  of  opinion.  It  may  be  said,  in  the 
first  place,  that  it  all  depends  upon  the  filly.  Horses  of  draft 
breeding  mature  much  earlier  than  the  hot-blooded  sort,  so  that  a 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  205 

draft  fiHy  at  two  years  of  age  is  often  as  forward  as  one  of 
trotting  breeding  almost  or  fully  a  year  older.  Again,  there  is 
a  gi-eat  difference  in  individuals  and  their  development.  Usually 
a  smootlily  turned,  neat,  well-finished  youngster  makes  its  growth 
much  sooner  than  an  apparently  rougher  but  more  growthy  indi- 
vidual, although  as  a  rule  the  latter  attains,  eventually,  to  much 
greater  scale.  Furthermore,  the  same  individual  may  develop 
in  much  less  time  in  the  hands  of  the  feeder  who  keeps  her  con- 
tinually "  doing  "  than  Avhen  required  to  make  all  her  growth 
on  pasture,  with  a  material  setback  due  to  improper  feeding  each 
Avinter  season. 

It  does  not  seem  feasible  to  include  in  this  discussion  any 
but  the  Avell-matured  draft  filly,  she  being  the  only  one  which 
should,  imder  any  circumstances,  be  bred  as  a  two-year-old. 
It  is  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
filly  herself,  early  breeding  is  beneficial,  but  as  a  business  propo- 
sition it  has  been  demonstrated  that,  whatever  slight  injurious 
effect  the  filly  may  suffer,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  offset  the  advan- 
tage of  having  her  make  some  return,  as  a  three-year-old,  to  the 
man  who  has  his  money  invested  and  is  paying  for  her  keep. 
It  is  more  satisfactory  to  have  a  tAvo-year-old  filly  pay  her  way 
by  raising  a  foal  than  by  going  to  work  in  the  field,  as  she  is  very 
much  more  apt  to  suffer  permanent  injury  from  this  than  from 
being  bred.  Even  though  a  great  many  two-year-olds  are  capable 
of  doing  a  considerable  amount  of  selected  work,  they  cannot 
take  the.  full  part  of  a  horse's  work  without  danger  of  its  becom- 
ing detrimental  to  their  ultimate  worth. 

The  breeding  of  fillies  is  believed  to  insure  their  becoming 
better  mothers  and  more  certain  and  regular  breeders,  eventually, 
than  though  they  be  permitted  to  fully  develop  and  become  some- 
Avhat  "  staggy,"  as  they  do  occasionally,  before  being  bred. 

Practice  Elsewhere. — The  best  means  of  solving  this  prob- 
lem is  to  accept  the  findings  of  the  other  great  horse-producing 
countries  where  it  has  been  thoroughly  worked  out.  In  Scotr 
land,  for  instance,  the  practice  is  to  breed  the  Clyde  fillies  the 
spring  they  are  two  years  old,  allowing  them  no  work  whatever 
that  season.    Then,  after  weaning  their  foals,  they  are  taken  up 


20g  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

as  three-year-olds  and  put  to  work,  but  not  bred  again  until  they 
are  four  years  old.  This  seems  to  be  a  very  practical  system 
and  worthy  of  our  adoption. 

Spring  or  Fall  Foaling. — The  natural  time  for  foals  to  ar- 
rive is  the  springy  and  under  ordinary  conditions,  especially  in 
breeding  studs,  this  is  customary.  However,  nature  is  perverted 
in  many  ways  by  modern  methods  of  domestication,  so  there  are 
circumstances  which  make  it  more  desirable  to  raise  fall  colts. 
With  good  stables,  abundance  of  feed,  and  the  necessary  help, 
there  is  no  reason  why  mares  should  not  be  made  to  foal  in  the 
fall,  if  it  is  more  convenient  to  have  them  do  so.  This  may  be 
the  case  with  farm  mares  which  are  expected  to  do  the  season's 
work  in  addition  to  raising  a  colt.  In  fact,  if  one  is  forced  to 
choose  between  a  spring  foal,  with  no  chance  to  properly  favor 
the  mare,  and  a  fall  colt  which  arrives  and  is  suckled  while  the 
mare  is  laid  by,  the  latter  would  be  more  desirable.  During  the 
winter,  however,  both  mares  and  foals  Avill  require.more  attention 
and  should  not  be  "  roughed  through."  By  late  foaling  the 
youngsters  can  be  given  a  good  start  before  they  are  set  back  by 
the  inevitable  short  pastures  and  flies  of  midsummer. 

Of  course,  breeders  of  race  and  show  horses  take  eveiy  ad- 
vantage of  the  age  limit  and  therefore  favor  early  foaling. 
There  are  also  the  unquestioned  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the 
life  in  the  open  and  the  new  grass  to  commend  the  spring  time 
for  foaling,  but  prejudice  against  the  fall  date  is  not  altogether 
warranted  and  circumstances  may  be  such  as  to  make  it  most 
advantageous. 

Weaning  the  Foal. — The  foal  is  usually  weaned  at  from 
four  and  one-half  to  six  months  of  age,  depending  upon  the  cir- 
cumstances. If  pasture  is  short,  or  if  for  any  reason  either  mare 
or  foal  is  not  doing  well,  it  is  advisable  to  wean  the  foal  com- 
paratively early.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  mare  has  a  full  flow 
of  milk  and  her  services  are  not  needed,  there  is  no  reason  for 
making  a  change  under  six  months.  Weaning  is  more  a  matter 
of  preparation  than  of  the  absolute  removal  of  the  foal  from 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  207 

the  dam,  and  the  simplicity  of  the  weaning  process  itself  depends 
upon  the  thoroughness  of  the  preparation. 

If  the  proper  provision  is  made  for  the  foal  to  take  more  and 
more  gTain  as  he  grows  older,  he  will  gradually  reduce  the 
amount  of  milk  taken  from  his  dam,  so  that  when  the  time  for 
weaning  arrives  very  little  if  any  setback  or  disturbance  is  caused 
either  foal  or  dam.  If,  however,  the  foal  must  learn  to  eat  after 
being  deprived  of  his  ordinary  source  of  sustenance,  he  will 
require  some  time  to  accommodate  himself  to  the  new  regime, 
while  the  mare  will  demand  especial  care  on  account  of  the 
removal  of  the  colt  before  her  milk  supply  has  been  to  any  ex- 
tent diminished.  Furthermore,  a  little  foal  acquires  a  spirit 
of  independence  as  he  becomes  self-sustaining,  and  for  that 
reason  the  absence  of  the  dam  becomes  a  less  disturbing  factor 
to  him,  especially  if  he  has  the  company  of  another  foal,  than 
to  the  young  thing  which  has  been  entirely  dependent  upon  its 
dam  until  she  is  suddenly  taken  away.  When  once  the  dam  and 
foal  are  separated  it  is  better  for  both  if  the  separation  is  com- 
plete ;  if,  after  both  have  become  reconciled  to  the  parting,  they 
are  permitted  to  see,  hear,  or  smell  each  other  again,  all  that  has 
been  gained  up  to  this  time  is  lost,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to 
begin  over.  Especial  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  new 
quarters,  where  the  weanlings  are  confined,  are  so  constructed 
and  arranged  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  them  to  injure  them- 
selves, in  case  they  make  a  demonstration  of  their  resentment  at 
being  so  treated. 

Care  of  the  Colt's  Feet. — The  relation  between  the  direction 
of  the  colt's  legs  and  the  form  of  his  feet  is  so  close  as  to  make 
the  cxire  of  the  latter  a  most  important  means  of  enhancing  his 
usefulness  in  later  years.  In  the»  first  place,  the  natural  attitude 
of  the  leg  determines,  in  large  part,  the  form  of  the  foot. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  natural  attitude  of  the  leg  may 
become  altered  to  conform  to  an  unnatural  condition  of  the  foot 
resulting  from  neglect.  Therefore,  if  the  natural  attitude  of  the 
leg  is  correct,  the  natural  form  of  the  foot  should  be  guarded 
in  order  to  preserve  the  correct  position  of  the  leg.     It  is  even 


208  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

possible,  within  certain  limits,  to  so  shape  a  colt's  foot  as  to 
induce  correction  of  some  defect  in  the  position  of  the  legs  which 
existed  at  birth.  For  example,  the  horse  which  stands  toe  mde, 
nigger  heeled,  or  splay  footed  as  it  is  commonly  called,  ^vi\\ 
have  the  inner  wall  of  his  foot  much  shorter  and  more  upright 
than  the  outer  wall.  The  condition  is  probably  due  primarily 
to  the  position  of  the  legs,  the  foot  at  birth  appearing  normal. 
If,  however,  the  animal  had  been  bom  with  the  legs  straight, 
but  for  some  reason  during  the  first  fcAV  months  of  his  life  the 
out-er  wall  of  his  foot  had  been  allowed  to  become  longer  than 
the  inner  w^all,  this  unnatural  form  of  the  foot  would  tend  to 
bring  about  a  toe  wide  position  of  the  legs  which  were  originally 
straight  Or,  if  the  feet  of  a  toe  wide  colt  had  been  kept  in 
proper  form,  they  would  have  influenced  the  toe  wide  legs  to 
assume  a  proper  direction. 

Horses  become  unsound  of  limb  when  the  wear  and  tear  is 
not  equally  distributed,  certain  parts  bearing  an  undue  amount. 
Equal  distribution  of  weight  bearing  and  other  functional  activ- 
ities are  possible  only  when  the  form  of  the  foot  and  the  direc- 
tion of  the  leg  are  correct.  Any  deviation  from  the  proper 
standing  position  of  whatever  degree  will,  in  all  probability, 
cause  a  proportionate  overtaxing  of  certain  parts  mth  its  result- 
ing unsoundness. 

Handling  the  Foal. — It  is  much  easier  to  train  the  young 
plant  or  to  mold  the  clay  before  they  are  set  in  some  definite 
form.  In  tlie  same  way  the  young  animal,  and  notably  the  horse, 
has  fewer  ideas  of  his  own,  and  is  more  ready  to  accept  the  direc- 
tions of  a  superior  intelligence  the  younger  tliis  work  is  taken  up. 

The  too  common  notion  that  education  and  work  are  insepar- 
able is  largely  responsible  for  the  fact  that  so  many  colts  are 
allow^ed  to  assert  their  independence  until  such  time  as  they  are 
fit  to  go  to  work,  their  general  usefulness  being  in  most  cases 
impaired  on  this  account.  The  horse  should  be  reasonably  ma- 
ture before  he  is  called  upon  to  do.  any  service,  but  any  time 
spent  on  his  education  prior  to  the  date  at  which  he  first  goes 
into  commission,  as  it  were,  will  be  repaid  many-fold  in  the  moite 
satisfactory  manner  in  which  he  performs  his  service. 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  209 

The  profit  and  pleasure  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  a  horse 
of  anv  class  are  so  dependent  upon  his  being  readily  subservient, 
to  his  master's  will  that  the  earlier  this  spirit  is  created  tlie 
better  horse  he  will  be.  A  common  custom  in  the  Middle  West 
is  to  take  the  unbroken  two-  or  three-year-old,  put  him  between 
two  or  three  other  horses  to  the  gang  plow,  and  thus  "  break  " 
him.  He  pulls  when  the  others  pull,  makes  the  turns  when  they 
do,  and  finally  becomes  of  about  as  much  service  at  that  work  as 
the  other  horses  in  the  team,  but  he  is  not  broken.  Take  him  by 
himself  and  he  will  not  stand,  back,  lead,  rein,  or  allow  a  foot 
to  be  picked  up  without  as  much  or  more  resistance  than  was 
offered  before  the  breaking  process  began. 

Subordination,— LMe  foals-  should  be  taught  subordination 
at  the  very  start,  and  not  allowed  to  become  wilful  or  head- 
strong. An  early  effort  in  this  direction  mil  not  only  simplify 
that  culmination  of  their  education,  too  often  most  properly 
termed  "  breaking,"  but  it  will  insure  that  end  being  more  com-, 
pletely  accomplished.  On  the  other  hand,  the  idea  of  fear  must 
be  kept  as-  remote  as  possible,  as  the  timid  horse  is  usually  the 
one  whicli  has  some  teiTifying  experience  to  remember.  Even 
before  the  time  for  haltering  arrives,  the  youngsters  may  be 
taught  to  stand  over,  have  tlieir  feet  raised,  and  in  a  general  way 
to  respond  to  the  master  mind. 

Halter  Breaking. — When  halters  are  to  be  placed  on  the 
colts  in  order  that  they  may  Ix^come  accustomed  to  them,  one  of 
the  light  web  variety'  is  preferable  to  the  heavier  strap  halter 
commonly  used,  and'care  should  be  taken  not  to  pull  heavily  on 
the  nose,  band  at  any  time.  Many  deformed  face  lines  have  been 
caused  by  this  means.  It  is  not  necessar>^  to  drag  a  colt  by  the 
halter  in  order  to  sugge&t  to  him  that  his  bu-siness  is  to  follow. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  reverse  effect  is  usual,  and  the  harder 
a  colt  is  pulled,  the  harder  he  pulls  back.  If,  on  the  contrary,  he 
is  coaxed  along  some  accustomed  route,  as  to  the  water  trough 
and  back,  he  will  soon  catch  on  and  follow  promptly  whenever 
the  halter  is  taken  in  hand. 

The  first  time  the  colt  is  tied  up  by  the  head,  see  to  it  that  the 
halter  will  hold  him  in  case  he  pulls.    If  it  does  and  he  fails  in 
14 


210  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

the  first  few  attempts,  a  string  mil  probably  ser^^e  as  well  as  a 
chain  to  keep  him  in  his  place  tliereafter,  while  if  he  succeeds  in 
freeing  himself  at  the  first  few  attempts  he  will  never  cease 
trying  to  repeat  what  he  has  once  accomplished. 

Bridle  and  Harness. — The  first  step  toward  getting  a  colt 
going  successfully  in  harness  is  to  properly  bit  and  mouth  him. 
In  the  old  countries  a  common  practice  is  to  back  the  colt  into  a 
slip  stall  and  hold  him  there  by  cross-ties  snapped  in  the  bit 
rings.  He  thus  works  against  the  iron,  first  bearing,  then  yield- 
ing, until  he  becomes  accustomed  to  its  presence  and  tlie  pressure 
exerted  by  it.  The  dumb  jockey  or  more  simple  bitting  ring, 
commonly  used  here,  serves  much  the  same  purpose,  but  no 
mechanical  device  is  as  effective  as  the  pressure  of  the  hand  on 
the  rein ;  better  mouths  are  made  in  this  way.  One  of  the  most 
effective  ways  of  developing  a  good  mouth  in  a  colt  and  of  teaching 
him  to  flex  his  neck  is  by  riding  him  as  soon  as  he  is  old  enough 
to  be  "  backed.''  Many  of  the  best  harness  horses  received  much 
of  their  preliminary  schooling  from  the  saddle.  Inasmuch  as 
the  conveyance  of  the  master's  thought  to  the  horse's  mind,  for 
execution,  is  via  hands,  reins,  bit,  and  mouth,  no  progress  can  be 
made  and  none  should  be  attempted  until  this  fundamental 
means  of  communication  has  been  established.  Simple  physical 
power  is  a  poor  means  of  control  when  applied  to  the  horse.  On 
the  contrary,  control  is  a  matter  which  involves  to  a  greater 
extent  the  mental  faculties  of  both  horse  and  master.  If  he  has 
been  inspired  from  colthood  with  the  idea  of  man's  dominance, 
obedience  will  receive  a  great  deal  more  consideralion  from  him 
than  will  rebellion. 

AMiile  teaching  the  horse  subordination  by  loading  liim  to 
underestimate  certain  of  his  powers,  it  is  also  essential  tliat  he 
be  made  to  believe  that  there  is  no  limit  to  certain  others.  In 
the  breaking  process  the  kick  strap  should  not  be  left  off  until 
the  habit  has  been  acquired,  nor  should  any  pains  be  spared  to 
prevent  an  initial  performance  at  either  rearing,  backing,  wheel- 
ing, or  running.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  just  as  important  not 
to  overload  a  pair  of  draft  colts,  with  a  view  of  creating  in  them 
the  notion  that  they  can  pull  anything  with  two  ends  loose.    For 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  211 

the  same  reason  a  prospective  race  horse  should  be  given  no 
occasion  to  believe  that  he  is  anything  but  invincible.  Thus  by 
exaggerating  our  equine  servant's  notion  of  those  of  his  powers 
which  are  most  useful  to  us,  and  at  the  same  time  deceiving  him 
as  to  those  attributes  wkich,  if  realized,  might  impair  his  use- 
fulness, we  promote  his  serviceability. 

It  is  not  necessary  here  to  discuss  the  various  systems  of 
breaking,  nor  the  art  of  driving.  The  idea  is  simply  to  impress 
upon  the  breeder  the  importance  of  properly  handling  the  colts 
and  fillies  w^hich  he  has  bred.  At  all  events,  give  them  a  liberal 
education  and  begin  early.  Then,  when  the  buyer  comes  along, 
the  colt  so  handled  is  more  likely  to  sell  well  for  three  reasons : 
( 1 )  He  is  worth  more  ;  ( 2  )  the  owner  has  a  better  opportunity  to 
shoAV  the  colt  oil  to  his  oavti  advantage,  presenting  him  with  the 
best  foot  forward,  as  it  were;  and  (3)  the  buyer  has  a  much 
better  chance  to  observe  the  real  merit  that  he  possesses. 


Sterility  is  thK-cau^eofco^sid^fable  loss  to  horse  breeders 
annually.  Since  actual  test  in  the  stud  is  the  only  means  of  de- 
termining its  existence,  large  prices  may  be  paid  for  breeding 
animals  wliich  prove  utterly  useless  for  that  pur]30se.  Some 
knowledge  of  the  causes  of  sterility  may  enable  the  breeder  to 
guard  against  the  purchase  of  barren  animals,  to  prevent  it  in 
his  breeding  stock,  or  to  regain  the  breeding  power  of  animals  in 
Avhich  it  is  temporarily  impaired. 

Sterility  may  be  either  permanent  or  temporary,  and  involves 
both  sexes.  Permanent  sterility  is  usually  congenital,  the  result 
of  an  incomplete  or  abnormal  development  of  the  generative 
organs.  Temporary  sterility  is  caused  by  injuries  or  disease 
affecting  the  genital  system,  or  such  general  constitutional  con- 
ditions as  may  result  from  a  change  of  environment,  either  ex- 
treme obesity  or  general  debility,  and  excessive  use  in  the  stud. 

Sterility  in  the  stallion  may  consist  either  of  an  inability  or 
an  indisposition  to  sen^e  a  mare ;  or  that  operation  may  be  accom- 
plished but  with  no  resulting  impregnation  on  account  of  the 


212  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

absence  of  live,  vigorous  spermatozoa.  Sterility  of  the  latter 
class  may  be  complete  or  only  partial,  as  when  the  breeding 
powers  are  impaired  but  not  lost.  Double  cryptorchids,  in  which 
both  testicles  are  retained  undeveloped  in  the  abdomen,  are  usu- 
ally sterile,  while  single  cryptorchids  (ridglings),  in  which  one 
testicle  only  is  involved,  may  be  sure  breeders.  The  latter  are 
objectionable  as  sires,  hoAvever,  since  the  condition  is  frequently 
transmitted,  thereby  seriously  complicating  the  0}:)eration  of 
castration. 

Many  instances  are  reported  of  imported  stallions  which  have 
had  successful  stud  seasons  abroad  proving  impotent  the  first 
year  or  two  in  this  country,  after  which  their  potency  is  regained. 

Stallions  remain  potent  to  an  old  age  as  a  rule.  Many  valu- 
able sires  are  sacrificed  just  as  their  true  worth  is  beginning  to 
be  appreciated,  because  they  are  growing  old.  Experienced 
breeders  who  retain  their  proven  sires  find  them  potent  to  an 
advanced  age  and  much  more  valuable  than  many  untried  young 
stallions  prove  to  be.  Most  stallions  are  sold  Avith  a  guarantee 
to  get  60  per  cent  of  breedable  mares  in  foal,  but  a  much  higher 
percentage  is  maintained  by  some. 

Sterility  or  barrenness  of  the  mare  consists  of  an  inability 
to  produce  a  living  colt.  She  may  either  be  unable  to  conceive, 
to  carry  the  foal  the  full  period  of  fcetal  development,  or  to  de- 
liver the  foal  alive  at  the  conclusion  of  gestation. 

Some  mares  are  so  irritable  or  excitable  in  the  presence  of 
the  stallion  as  to  make  it  necessary  to  resort  to  artificial  impreg- 
nation in  order  to  get  them  bred. 

If  a  twelve  or  fourteen-year-old  mare  has  never  had  a  foal, 
her  generative  organs  have  probably  undergone  more  or  less 
atrophy  from  disuse,  and  the  possibility  of  getting  her  with  foal 
is  much  lessened.  There  are  numerous  instances,  however,  of 
quite  old  mares  having  become  pregnant  for  the  first  time.  Mares 
frequently  suffer  from  cysts  or  tumors  of  the  ovaries,  the  irrita- 
tion of  which  keeps  them  almost  continually  in  heat  and  renders 
them  practically  useless,  yet  they  fail  to  get  in  foal,  when  bred. 
Such  mares  should  be  spayed  and  considered  as  work  geldings 
rather  than  brood  mares. 


THE  BREEDING  OP  HORSES  213 

Extensive  breeders  of  imported  mares  have  experienced  con- 
siderable difficulty  in  getting  some  of  them  in  foal  the  first  season 
or  two  after  their  arrival  unless  they  were  in  foal  when  brought 
over;  others  breed  as  readily  as  native  mares. 

Occasionally  a  mare  is  encountered  which  breeds  only  every 
other  year.  Others  will  not  come  in  season,  or  at  least  conceive^ 
while  suckling  a  foal.  It  is  usually  more  difficult  to  get  mares 
in  foal  in  the  fall  than  in  the  spring.  The  age  to  which  maret? 
will  continue  to  breed  is  variable,  but  many  have  remained  pro- 
ductive after  passing  the  quarter  century  mark.  Their  breeding 
power  declines  gradually,  being  marked  by  occasional  misses, 
occurring  with  increased  frequency. 

A  mare  which  produces  a  good  foal  regularly  is  of  priceless 
value  in  the  breeding  stud.  When  an  apparently  valuable 
breeder,  although  not  in  foal  at  the  time,  is  offered  for  sale,  it 
is  safe  to  assume  that  she  has  proven  herself  barren  or  at  least 
a  shy  breeder,  unless,  of  course,  there  are  other  obviously  good 
reasons  to  account  for  her  being  sold. 

Herniaphrodites,  individuals  in  which  the  sexual  organs  of 
both  sexes  are  more  or  less  completely  represented,  are,  of  course, 
sterile. 

Reproduction  is  a  natural  function  which  requires  simply  a 
normal  state  of  health  and  vigor  for  its  accomplishment.  The 
stallion  does  not  need  the  artificial  stimulation  of  drugs  to  in- 
sure his  potency,  neither  can  there  be  any  virtue  in  "  breeding 
remedies  ''  for  mares,  other  than  that  they  may,  like  any  anti- 
septic preparation,  overcome  acidity  or  correct  a  catarrhal  con- 
dition in  the  genital  tract. 

When  intelligent  management  of  breodins:  animals,  insuring, 
especially,  a  balance  between  feed  and  exercise,  fails,  it  is 
probable  that  breeding  is  either  str'^cturally  or  functionally 
impossible. 

Artificial  impregnation  is.  quite  generally  resorted  to  now  by 
breeders  of  all  classes  of  horses,  both  as  a  means  of  extending 
the  services  of  the  stallion  and  to  insure  the  mares'  getting  in 
foal.  The  method  of  conveying  the  spermatic  fluid  from  the 
vagina  of  the  mare  served,  into  the  uterus  of  the  same  or  other 


214  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

mares,  by  means  of  either  the  gelatine  capsule  or  the  impreg- 
nator — a  specially  designed  syringe — is  familiar  to  most  hoi*se 
breeders.  When  first  advocated,  artificial  impregnation  was 
opposed  by  mare  owners,  but  when  it  is  demonstrated  that  colts 
so  conceived  can  not  be  distinguished  from  colts  sired  in  the 
natural  way,  this  prejudice  gradually  disappears.  Peter  the 
Great,  the  leading  sire  of  trotters,  got  from  seventy  to  eighty 
foals  a  year  as  a  result  of  artificial  impregnation  being  used  in 
his  case. 

It  is  fundamental  to  the  successful  practice  of  artificial  im- 
pregnation to  know  that  the  vitality  of  the  male  geiTa  cell  is  so 
susceptible  to  the  infiuence  of  light  and  temperature  that  it  must 
be  carefully  handled  and  quickly  transferred.  "  Colts  by  mail '' 
is  hardly  feasible. 

Artificial  Insemination. — This  method  of  breeding  is  re- 
ported to  have  been  long  practiced  in  crude  fashion  by  the  Arab 
horsemen  and  by  dog  men,  in  a  limited  way,  but  it  has  recently 
come  into  more  general  adoption  by  horse  breeders.  The  simpler 
anatomical  arrangement  of  the  cervix  and  the  longer  heat  period 
of  the  mare  make  artificial  insemination  much  more  practical  in 
horses  than  in  cattle. 

The  objects  of  resorting  to  artificial  means  to  inseminate 
mares  are  to  distribute,  yet  conserve,  the  services  of  a  valuable 
sire,  to  insure  conception  in  some  mares  which  fail  to  settle  to  the 
ordinary  service  of  the  stallion,  and  to  obviate  the  danger  of 
serving  some  nervous  or  irritable  mares. 

The  technic  consists  in  collecting  the  seminal  fluid  from  the 
depressed  floor  of  the  vagina  of  a  mare  just  served  by  the  horse, 
in  the  regular  way,  by  means  of  an  uncovered  capsule  or  a 
syringe,  carrying  it  to  the  genital  tract  of  other  mares  ready  to  be 
bred  and  inserting  it  directly  through  the  cervix  into  the  uterus 
of  these  mares.  All  this  must  be  accomplished  without  subject- 
ing the  semen  to  much  variation  from  body  temperature,  in  order 
not  to  impair  the  \atality  and  motility  of  the  germ  cells.  It  may 
be  advisable  to  capsule  the  mare  already  served  by  the  horse. 

The  strictest  cleanliness  should  be  obser\^ed  throughout  the 
operation  and  mares  showing  vaginal  discharge  or  any  unhealthy 


THE  BREEDING  OF  HORSES  215 

condition  of  the  generative  organs  should  be  avoided.  The  oper- 
ator's nails  should  be  short  and  clean,  the  hand  and  arm  thor- 
onglily  washed  and  lubricated  with  mild  soap  suds  or  vaseline. 
The  utmost  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  abrade  or  infect  the 
mucous  surfaces  in  manipulation.  The  collection  of  the  semen 
is  best  made  with  a  syringe  which  can  be  boiled  and  a  flexible 
nozzle  is  an  advantage.  The  fluid  is  then  transferred,  one  by  one, 
into  as  many  one-ounce  conical  shaped  gelatine  capsules  as  there 
are  mares  to  breed,  the  syringe  being  immersed  in  water  at 
body  temperature,  in  the  interval  between  the  filling  and  insert- 
ing of  each  capsule. 

No  special  restraint  is  necessary,  as  a  rule,  but  restive  mares 
may  have  a  twitch  applied  to  the  nose,  and  possibly  a  side  line  to 
hold  up  one  foot.  Heavy  or  stiff  tails  would  be  better  tied  to 
one  side  or  bandaged. 

Testing  the  Potency  of  a  Stallion. — Recognizing  the  part  the 
male  may  play  in  sterility,  it  is  important  to  test  the  semen  from 
time  to  time,  not  only  to  detect  impotency,  but  to  determine  the 
results  of  too  heavy  service,  masturbation,  overfeeding,  emacia- 
tion or  any  condition  which  may  affect  the  vitality  of  the  male 
germ  cells.  A  sample  of  semen  is  received  in  a  clean  container 
at  the  conclusion  of  a  service,  and  a  few  drops  placed  on  a  slide 
or  cover  glass  to  be  examined  under  a  low  power  microscope. 
Normally  the  spermatozoa  or  male  sex  cells  will  be  seen  actively 
motile,  forcing  their  way  across  the  field  by  a  vigorous  lashing 
of  their  tails.  They  are  present  in  great  numbers,  428,000 
per  cm.*  Their  motility  is  gradually  lost  under  the  influence 
of  drying,  light,  and  high  temperature. 

REVIEW 

1.  Describe  the  forces  involved  in  breeding. 

2.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  parent  to  the  ancestry  on  the  one  hand 

and  the  progeny  on  the  other? 

3.  Explain  the  greater  breeding  value  of  the  pure-bred  parent.    What 

is  the  pedigree? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  prepotency  and  upon  what  may  it  depend? 

5.  What  are  the  objections  to  cross-breeding  and  when  is  it  justifiable? 

*  Lewis,  Okla.  Exp.  Station  Bui.  93  and  96. 


216  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 

6.  What  is  the  importance  of  studbook  registration? 

7.  What  are  the  objects  of  stallion  legislation? 

8.  Why  is  "  pure  bred  "  an  arbitrai-y  teiin ? 

9.  When  may  an  unsoundness  be  considered  hereditaiy? 

10.  Name  the  advantages  of  the  community  system  of  breeding. 

11.  Of  what  does  the  proper  equipment  of  a  breeding  stud  consist? 

12.  Describe  the  ideal  sire  and  direct  his  care  and.  management. 

13.  Describe  the  ideal  brood  mare  and  direct  her  care  and  management. 

14.  What  can  be  said  of  breeding  two-year-old  fillies;  of  fall  foaling? 

15.  What  should  the  proper  care  of  the  foal  from  birth  to  marketable 

age  include  and  how  much  should  it  cost? 


PART  IV 

THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


CHAPTER  XIII 
RELATION  BETWEEN  HORSE  AND  MASTER 

History. — Tlie  first  reference  to  the  domesticated  horse  is  in 
the  Book  of  Genesis,  Chapter  xii^  verse  43,  and  records  him  in  use 
hy  the  Egyptians  in  Joseph's  time,  1715  B.C.  Modem  research, 
however,  leads  us  to  believe  tliat  the  Egyptians  derived  their 
horses  and  ideas  of  horsemanship  from  the  Libyans,  the  people 
(jf  the  other  division  of  the  Hamitic  branch  of  the  white  race 
inhabiting  [N'ortheni  Africa  and  with  whom  the  Egyptians  were 
frequently  brought  in  contact.  From  this  centre  the  general 
distribution  of  horses  throughout  Arabia,  Asia  Minor,  Asia,  and 
Europe  was  accomplished  with  greater  rapidity  than  has  marked 
the  advance  in  the  domestication  of  any  other  animal.  Con- 
trary to  a  popular  belief,  there  were  no  horses  in  Arabia  at  the 
beginning  of  tlie  Christian  Era.  The  horse  has  been  and  is  yet, 
in  primitive  countries,  preceded  as  a  beast  of  burden  by  the  dog, 
camel,  ox,  and  ass. 

Recently  archaeologists  have  uneartlied  evidence  that  the 
horse  not  only  existed  but  was  subjugated  to  the  service  of  man 
in  the  Old  Stone  Age,  when  men  lived  in  caves,  worked  and 
fought  with  implements  and  weapons  of  stone  of  most  crude 
design,  and  were  supposed  to  have  domesticated  only  the  dog  and 
the  reindeer. 

The  first  use  made  of  the  horse  was  in  warfare.  The  war 
chariot  has  been  regarded  as  a  creation  of  the  Egyptians,  but  it 
is  believed  now  that  the  design  was  borrowed  from  the  Libyans. 
Later,  the  Avar  horses  were  ridden,  and  hand-to-hand  combat  with 
spear  or  lance  and  shield  was  waged  by  their  riders,  although  at 
first  the  horses  served  only  for  the  transportation  of  the  com- 
batants to  the  field  of  battle,  where  they  dismounted  and  fought 
on  foot.  With  the  adoption  of  annor,  the  size  of  the  horse  was 
materially  increased,  in  order  that  he  might  be  capable  of  carry- 
ing the  gross  weight  of  rider  and  armor  both  for  man  and  horse. 

219 


220  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

With  the  invention  of  gunpowder  the  type  of  war  horse  was 
modified  in  accordance  with  the  change  in  methods  of  warfare. 
Our  modem  cavalry  charger  is  quite  a  different  horse  from  the 
ancient  '^  Great  Horse  ''  of  the  armored  knight,  which  eventually 
became  the  prototype  of  our  present  drafter. 

In  ancient  times  it  was  customary  for  the  victors  in  a  con- 
flict to  drive  their  chariots  through  the  towns  in  celebration  of 
their  victory,  a  practice  now  emulated  by  college  students.  This 
led  to  the  adoption  of  the  chariot  as  a  feature  not  allied  to  war 
but  representing  the  Church  and  State.  White  horses  were  pre- 
ferred for  this  service,  and  a.  race  of  white  horses  was  perpetu- 
ated in  Lombardy  and  the  purity  of  their  lineage  was  guarded 
with  great  zeal  solely  for  this  purpose.  The  horse  has  been  an 
important  factor  in  civil  and  religious  ceremonies  ever  since. 

At  an  early  period  the  horse  was  engaged  in  the  sports  and 
pastimes  of  the  people.  During  the  latter  half  of  the  twelfth 
century  primitive  horse  sports,  the  most  remote  antecedents  of 
modern  polo  and  the  gymkhana,  were  popular  in  England.  In 
1377  the  first  race  was  run  between  Richard  Second  and  the  Earl 
of  Arundel.  Racing  and  hunting  have  been  followed  in  England 
for  five  centuries. 

The  general  use  of  horses  in  the  industries  came  later, 
although  there  is  evidence  of  their  having  worked  at  draft  in 
England  during  the  eleventh  century.  Their  importance  in  this 
line  of  service  has  increased  in  proportion  to  the  development  of 
agri<?ulture  and  commerce. 

Man's  Obligation  to  the  Horse  in  Service. — The  horse  is  an 
involuntary,  despondent  party  of  the  second  part  to  all  contracts; 
a  silent  and  submissive  partner  in  his  alliance  with  his  master. 
Theirs  is  a  business  relation  in  Avhich  the  credits  are  all  on  one 
side,  .the  debits  on  the  other,  and  the  horse  is  never  accorded  an 
accounting.  Yet  if  the  master  would  be  fair  and  equitable,  he 
must  either  concede  a  moral  if  not  a  civil  obligation  to  pay  for 
services  rendered,  or  exact  only  such  service  as  his  care  and 
management  of  his  horses  has  placed  to  his  credit. 

In  the  feral  state  the  horse  is  self-sustaining,  expending  his 
energy  by  utilizing  his  power  or  speed  in  securing  feed,  water, 


RELATION  BETWEEN  HORSE  AND  MASTER  221 

and  protection  from  the  elements  and  predatory  foes;  under 
natural  conditions  such  expenditure  may  be  considerable. 

In  Domestication. — The  husbandman,  with  his  system  of 
domestication,  substitutes  an  artificial  for  a  natural  environ- 
ment, relieving  the  horse  of  all  responsibility  in  the  matter  of 
feed,  water,  and  protection,  conserving  to  himself  the  energy 
that  would  otherwise  be  expended  for  that  purpose.  There 
is  thus  made  available  to  the  husbandman  energy  for  work  of 
whatever  character  the  horse  is  capable,  and  to  just  the  extent 
that  energ;)^  has  been  saved.  To  balance  the  account,  horses 
working  up  to  their  full  capacity  must  be  furnished  all  that  is 
required  for  their  subsistence  and  comfort;  to  underfeed  or 
overwork  is  to  overdraw  the  account,  and  against  one  who  has 
not  the  usual  privilege  of  protest. 

Economic  efficiency  of  the  horse  in  service  is  more  essential 
now  than  ever  before,  on  account  of  the  high  cost  of  foodstuffs 
and  the  continued  improvement  in  the  motor  vehicles  with  which 
the  horse  is  in  competition. 

Two  men  may  ride  or  drive  the  same  horse  or  team  over  the 
game  route  with  the  same  load  and  in  the  same  time,  yet  there 
will  be  a  marked  difference  in  the  condition  of  their  horses  after 
having  accomplished  the  same  task.  This  difference  is  due  to  a 
more  intelligent  use  of  the  available  motive  power  in  the  one 
case  than  in  the  other.  If  the  various  ways  in  which  energy 
may  be  expended  in  the  performance  of  work  were  more  care- 
fully taken  into  account,  both  the  period  of  usefulness  and  the 
daily  capacity  of  the  average  horse  would  be  much  increased. 

A  Horse's  Capacity  for  Work. — The  unit  of  measurement 
by  which  work  is  expressed  is  the  foot  pound  or  the  foot  ton,  i.e., 
the  ]iower  required  to  lift  a  weight  of  one  pound  or  one  ton  to  a 
height  of  one  foot  against  the  force  of  gravity.  The  energy  re- 
quired to  do  work  equivalent  to  33,000  foot  pounds  per  minute 
constitutes  a  horse-power.  This  estimate  of  a  horse's  power  is 
not  literally  correct,  however,  but  exceeds  the  capacity  for  work 
of  the  average  horse  by  about  one-third. 

Horses  have  been  forced,  experimentally,  to  do  the  equiva- 
lent of  7800  foot  tons  in  a  day,  but  that  is  far  in  excess  of  their 
normal  capacity,  as  shown  by  the  marked  loss  in  weight  which 


222  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

attended  such  efforts.  Three  thousand  foot  tons  has  been  fixed 
by  Col.  Fred  Smith,  Veterinary  Department,  English  Army,*  as 
a  reasonable  daily  requirement  of  the  horse,  in  work.  This 
amounts,  in  actual  performance,  to: 

Distance  travelled. 

Walking    at    3  miles  an  hour  for  8.7  hours 26  miles 

Walking    at    4  miles  an  hour  for  5.3  houi^s 21  miles 

Walking    at    5  miles  an  hour  for  3,7  hours IS  miles 

Trottino;    at    S  miles  an  hour  for  l.o  hours 12  miles 

Cantering  at  11  miles  an  hour  for  1    11  miles 

The  same  authority  has  determined  a  horse's  maximum 
muscular  exertion  to  be  68  to  78  per  cent  of  his  body  weight, 
as  registered  by  his  pull  on  the  dynamometer,  not  on  the  load. 
Such  a  pull,  however,  could  be  exerted  but  a  few  seconds,  as 
in  the  starting  of  a  very  heavy  load.  The  walking  draft  of  a 
horse  is  given  by  Kingf  as  about  50  per  cent  of  his  body  weight, 
while  for  a  steady,  continuous  pull  a  draft  of  from  one-eighth  to 
one-tenth  of  his  own  weight  is  all  that  can  be  expected. 

The  weight-carrying  capacity  of  a  horse  as  reported  by  Smith 
is  from  one-fifth  to  one-sixth  his  weight,  at  severe  exertion.  If 
the  pace-  is  more  moderate  the  weight  carried  may  be  increased. 
The  weight  carried  is  expressed  in  England  by  stone — one  stone 
being  fourteen  pounds. 

The  factors  determining  the  severity  of  a  horse's  work  are 
the  draft  of  the  load,  the  pace  at  which  the  load  is  hauled  or  car- 
ried, and  the  duration  of  the  period  of  work. 

Draft  of  the  Load. — The  traction  required  to  move  a  load 
is  dependent  upon  the  following  conditions,  acording  to  King: 

1.  The  extent  to  which  the  pull  is  opposed  by  the  force  of 
gravity.  The  increase  in  the  draft  required  to  move  a  load  up 
hill  is  proportionate  to  the  increase  in  the  grade.  A  10  jwr  cent 
grade  increases  the  draft  10  per  cent  of  the  load. 

2.  The  resistance  offered  by  the  road-bed  to  the  wheel.  This 
is  least  when  the  road  is  smooth  and  hard ;  greatest  when  rough 
or  yielding.    Eougli  roads  impose  a  senes  of  obstacles  over  which 

*  Veterinaiy  Hygiene, 
t  Agricultural  Physics. 


REIATION  BETWEEN  HORSE  AND  MASTER  223 

the  wheel  must  travel,  while  the  depression  of  a  soft  road  surface 
by  the  wheel  creates  a  grade  up  which  tlie  wheel  is  continually 
being  drawn,  in  effect,  the  degree  of  the  grade  being  proportion- 
ate to  the  depth  to  which  the  wheel  cuts.  Experiments  have 
sliowTi  that  tlie  traction  of  a  given  load  over  a  connnon 
road  is  from  three  to  five  times  as  great  as  in  the  case  of  a  well- 
paved  surface. 

3.  Friction  of  the  box  on  the  axle.  The  degree  of  friction 
depends,  primarily,  upon  the  weight  of  the  load,  but  may  be 
modified  by  the  style  and  condition  of  the  axle  and  bearings. 

4.  Width  of  the  tire.  On  the  ordinary  road  the  wide  tire 
reduces  the  necessary  draft  by  distributing  the  weight  borne  by 
the  wheel  over  a  greater  area  of  road  surface,  thereby  reducing 
the  tendency  of  the  wheel  to  cut  into  the  roadway  and  giving 
tlie  effect  of  a  hard  road,  with  its  advantages.  In  an  unusually 
soft  or  muddy  road  the  wide  tire  may  be  a  disadvantage.  The 
saving  in  draft  of  as  much  as  120  per  cent  has  been  effected  by 
the  use  of  a  six-inch  tire  instead  of  a  one  and  one-half  inch  tire 
on  ordinary  going. 

5.  Size  of  wheel.  It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  de- 
pression of  the  road  by  the  wheel  results  in  that  wheel  being  con- 
tinually pulled  up  a  grade,  the  steepness  of  which  is  in  inverse 
proportion  to  the  diameter  of  the  wdieel.  Furthermore,  the  lia- 
bility of  tlie  wheel  to  cut  is  in  direct  proportion  to  its  diameter. 
The  larger  the  wheel  the  greater  the  base  of  support  for  the  load 
and  the  less  the  tendency  to  depress.  Therefore,  the  smaller 
the  wheel  the  greater  the  draft.  Also,  the  gi^eater  the  diameter 
of  the  whe^l  the  more  easily  it  is  lifted  over  the  obstacles  which 
tJie  rough  surfaces  of  some  roads  present  (Fig.  125). 

6.  The  distribution  of  the  load  on  the  wagon.  When  only 
part  of  a  load  is  carried  it  is  customary  witli  teamsters  to  place 
it  well  forward  on  the  wagon  for  obvious  reasons,  but  when  a 
full  load  is  put  on  it  should  be  so  distributed  as  to  balance  and 
divide  the  weight  equally  on  all  four  comers,  if  the  wheels  are  of 
equal  size,  or  if  the  hind  wheels  are  somewhat  larger,  as  is 
usually  the  case,  more  weight  should  be  allowed  on  the  rear 
axle.  Lightening  tlie  load  for^vard  has  the  advantage  of  per- 
mitting a  certain  amount  of  play  in  the  front  axle  over  rough 


224  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

going.  If  the  load  is  not  evenly  distributed,  whichever  wheel  or 
wheels  are  overloaded  cut  more  deeply  into  the  road-bed,  thus 
increasing  the  draft  as  described  above.  Furthemiore,  by  the 
cutting  in  of  one  or  more  wheels  the  weight  of  Uie  load  is  shifted 
in  that  direction,  which  increases  the  degree  of  the  cutting  still 
deeper. 

7.  The  line  of  draft.  As  a  general  principle  the  line  of  draft 
should  be  parallel  to  the  direction  in  which  the  wheels  travel. 
On  an  absolutely  unyielding  surface  this  plane  is  parallel  to  the 
general  surface  of  the  roadway,  hence  the  draw  bars  on  railway 
cars  and  locomotives  line  up  parallel  with  the  rails.  The  ordi- 
nary wagon,  however,  is  hauled  over  surfaces  more  or  less  yield- 
ing, consequently,  allowing  for  the  depression  of  the  wiieels, 


Fig.  125. — The  draft  acting  in  the  line  A  B  pulls  on  a  bent  lever,  BCD,  raising  the 
weight  which  may  be  considered  as  concentrated  at  D.  The  longer  the  arm  B  C  and  the 
shorter  the  arm  C  D,  the  more  easily  will  the  draft  raise  the  weight  of  the  wheel  and  for  the 
same  sized  obstacle  the  larger  wheel  will  evidently  have  the  advantage.  In  the  figure  the 
lines  of  draft  make  the  same  angle  with  the  radius-arm  of  the  lever.  If  the  lines  of  draft 
are  parallel,  the  advantage  of  the  larger  wheel  is  still  greater. 

they  are  really  travelling  more  or  less  up  hill  at  an  angle  with 
the  apparent  surface  of  the  road.  There  should,  therefore,  be 
a  corresponding  slant  in  the  line  of  draft,  to  avoid  pulling  down 
upon  or  against  the  incline  of  the  depressed  surface.  The  ad- 
justment of  the  line  of  draft  is  governed  by  the  length  of  the 
tracer,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  height  of  their  attachment  at  both 
hame  and  single-tree,  on  the  other.  In  making  such  adjustment 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
traction  is  less  the  nearer  the  team  is  to  its  load. 

8.  Attachment  of  traces  to  hames.  Whatever  adjustment 
of  traces  is  made  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  proper  line  of 
draft,  it  should  not  interefere  with  the  angle  which  this  line 


RELATION  BETWEEN  HORSE  AND  MASTER  225 

forms  witli  the  liames.  With  a  properly  fitted  collar,  the  pull 
should  be  as  near  as  possible  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  resist- 
ance, the  hames,  in  order  that  the  collar  may  bear  directly 
against  the  shoulder,  and  not  be  borne  down  upon  the  withers 
nor  up  against  the  trachea.  Furthemiore,  the  height  on  the 
hames  at  which  the  attachment  of  the  traces  is  made  should  be 
such  as  to  distribute  tlie  bearing  proportionately  over  the  collar- 
bed,  and  allow  the  greatest  freedom  of  shoulder  motion.  If 
attached  too  high  the  greatest  weight  is  borne  on  that  part  of 
the  collar-bed  which  is  least  capable  of  sustaining  it,  while  if 
attached  too  low,  as  is  more  commonly  the  case,  the  point  of  the 
shoulder  is  overworked  as  well  as  being  seriously  hampered  in 
its  movement  (Fig.  126). 

9.  The  fit  of  the  collar.  While  not  directly  influencing  the 
degree  of  traction  required  to  move  a  load,  it  has  much  to  do 
with  the  application  of  the  power  by  which  the  load  is  pulled. 
A  horse^s  draft  capacity  is  very  often  seriously  impaired  by  his 
inability  to  exert  himself  to  the  limit  against  an  ill-fitting  collar. 
It  is  far  easier  to  keep  shoulders  right  than  to  restore  them  to 
that  condition  once  they  have  gone  wrong.  The  collar  should  be 
so  well  made  as  to  retain  its  shape  in  use ;  it  should  be  perfectly 
smooth  and  quite  hard  on  its  bearing  surface,  sweat  pads  more 
often  inducing  than  correcting  shoulder  ills ;  it  should  conform 
to  the  general  shape  of  the  forehand  of  the  horse,  draft  horses, 
with  their  comparatively  low  but  muscular  withers,  requiring 
ample  width  at  this  point;  and  it  should  fit  in  such  a  way  as 
to  insure  the  best  relation  between  the  collar  itself  and  those 
structures  constituting  the  collar-bed  with  whicli  it  comes  in 
contact  (Fig.  127).  A  properly  fitted  collar  should  admit  the 
tliickness  of  tlie  fingers  between  it  and  the  shoulder  all  around, 
with  sufiicient  room  for  tlie  hand  or  even  the  wrist,  over  the 
trachea  and  the  withers.  Made-to-measure  collars  are  a  good 
investment,  and,  needless  to  say,  the  fitting  should  be  made  with 
the  horse  in  working  condition. 

Dutch  or  breast  collars  should  be  so  adjusted  as  to  just  miss 
the  point  of  the  shoulder  below,  yet  not  compress  the  windpipe 
above  (Fig.  128). 

The  Rate  at  which  the  Load  is  Moved. — The  pace  at  which 
15 


226 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


a  horse  is  capable  of  exerting  his  draft  power  to  the  best  advan- 
tage is  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  miles  per  hour,  the  ordinary 
walking  rate.  Power  and  pace  are  not  correlated ;  the  speed 
horse  to  accomplish  his  utmost  must  have  the  lightest  impost 
of  weight,  while  the  draft  horse  requires  full  time  allowance 
for  the  best  performance  of  which  he  is  capable ;  therefore,  as 
more  pace  is  required,  less  load  can  be  hauled. 

The  Duration  of  the  Period  of  Work,  or  the  Distance 
Travelled. — The  traction  which  a  horse  is  capable  of  maintain- 
ing continuously,  for  a  day's  work,  as  plowing,  is  much  less 


Fig.  126.  —  The  angle 
formed  by  the  traces  with 
the  hames  should  be  as  near 
a  right  angle  as  possible  in 
order  to  insure  the  proper  di.s- 
tribution  of  collar  bearing  on 
the  collar  bed. 


Fig.  127. — The  scapulo- 
humeral and  elbow-joints, 
showing  the  position  of  the 
bones  of  the  shou^der  and 
arm  and  their  relation  to 
collar  bearing. 


Fig.  128.  — The 
breast  or  Dutch  collar 
in  proper  position. 


than  that  which  can  be  accomplished  in  one  short,  supreme  effort, 
as  in  the  starting  of  a  load  or  even  for  a  short  haul. 

There  is  an  intimate  give-and-take  relationship  existing 
among  these  factors  by  which  the  severity  of  a  horse's  work  is 
determined.  They  represent  the  means  by  which  energy  is 
expended. 

The  Application  of  the  Power. — \Vliat  might  be  considered 
as  the  application  of  the  power,  on  the  part  of  the  rider  or 
driver,  is  a  most  important  factor  in  limiting  what  a  horse  can 
do.  Two  drivers  will  show  very  different  results  in  what  they 
take  out  of  their  horses  in  accomplishing  the  same  work.  One 
husbands  his  horse's  strength,  speed,  and  stamina  in  such  a  way 


RELATION  BETWEEN  HORSE  AND  MASTER  227 

as  to  secure  tlie  maximum  return  for  every  unit  of  energy  ex- 
pended, with  always  a  reserve  upon  which  to  draw,  if  need  be. 
His  horses  are  working  or  going  well  within  themselves.  An- 
other, either  by  his  ignorance  or  inconsideration,  is  always  ex- 
pending more  of  his  horse's  resources  than  is  necessary  to  ac- 
complish a  given  task,  with  the  result  that  he  is  continually 
overdrawing  the  amount  of  energy  available,  and  his  horses  are 
soon  spent. 

Warming  Up  Slowly. — To  suddenly  open  wide  the  tlirottle 
of  an  engine  or  to  throw  to  the  last  position,  in  one  stroke,  the 
control  lever  of  a  trollej^  car  is  productive  of  great  mechanical 
injury,  yet  such  abnipt  application  of  horse  power  is  common. 
A  new  engine  runs  ^^  stiff  ''  till  warmed  up ;  so  does  a  Iku-sc,  and 
especially  an  unsound  one.  A  horse  starting  on  a  day's  work 
or  a  road  trip  should  havc^  the  collar  wanned  and  shaped  to  his 
shoulders,  his  muscles  actively  contracting  and  extending,  his 
joints  thoroughly  lubricated,  breathing  and  heart  action  grad- 
ually accelerated,  and  bowels  evacuated  before  he  is  called  upon 
for  his  best  effort.  In  the  reverse  order  he  should  be  gradually 
cooled  and  blown  out  before  being  put  away  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  day's  work  or  road  trip. 

Notice  to  Drivers. — The  following  advice  to  drivers  copied 
from  a  large  city  stable  is  typical  of  what  is  sought  in  most 
well-managed  establishments: 

1.  Walk  your  horses  for  ^ve  squares  going  to  and  from  the 
stable. 

2.  Water  horses  as  often  as  possible. 

3.  In  case  of  a  sick  horse  notify  the  stable  immediately. 

4.  Have  your  horses'  manes  and  tails  brushed,  buckles 
straight,  and  straps  in  keepers  before  starting. 

5.  'Reliable  information  of  the  ill  treatment  of  any  of  our 
stock  by  drivers  will  result  in  suspension  and,  in  serious  cases, 
in  prosecution. 

Trotting  down  hill  is  much  more  injurious  to  legs  and  feet, 
though  less  fatiguing,  than  trotting  up  hill.  A  horse  holds  his 
breath  during  extreme  effort,  as  in  pulling;  one  with  a  tube  in 
his  throat  will  have  his  pulling  power  much  impaired  because 


228  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

he  cannot  hold  his  breath  bj  closing  the  glottis.  Therefore,  an 
opportunity  to  fill  the  lungs  by  a  couple  of  full,  deep  breaths  at 
frequent  intervals  during  a  hard  pull  will  not  only  slow  down 
the  hurried,  shallow  breathing,  but  will  actually  increase  the 
power  of  the  horse  to  pull.  Every  advantage  of  grade  and  going 
should  be  availed  of,  and  the  horse  spared  most  when  great  effort 
would  be  most  futile. 

The  Natural  Gait. — The  majority  of  horses  acquire  a  natural 
pace  which  they  maintain  with  little  effort.  If  continually  urged 
to  a  slightly  faster  rate  of  speed  they  are  soon  distressed,  even 
though  the  actual  saving  of  time  in  the  distance  travelled  is 
immaterial. 

Condition. — The  fundamental  factor  determining  efficiency 
for  work,  other  things  being  equal,  is  condition  or  fitness.  Fit- 
ting renders  a  horse  more  efficient,  because  by  it  there  is  estab- 
lished a  state  of  health,  vigor,  and  muscular  tone  in  which  there 
is  a  concordant  action  between  lungs,  heart,  muscles,  digestion, 
and  nerve  control.  Condition  is  indicated  by  a  spirit  of  keen- 
ness for  work,  brightness  of  the  eye,  bloom  of  the  coat,  and  an 
absence  of  fat,  exposing  the  outline  of  the  individual  muscles, 
with  a  characteristic  hardness  of  the  muscles  themselves.  Con- 
dition is  a  matter  of  degree,  the  most  extreme  of  which  is  found 
in  the  race  horse  and  hunter,  less  in  the  road  and  work  horse, 
and  still  less  in  the  park  or  show  horse,  a  surplus  of  fat  being 
desirable  in  the  latter  case. 

Fat  is  an  element  of  condition  in  the  draft  horse  in  which  it 
has  the  real  advantage  of  adding  to  his  weight  in  the  most  natural 
way,  as  well  as  affording  him  a  reserve  store  of  energy  upon 
which  to  draw  in  his  long  hours  of  arduous  daily  service.  It 
must  be  put  on,  however,  under  the  same  conditions  as  obtain 
in  the  regular  life  of  the  draft  horse,  namely,  Avhile  at  work; 
otherwise  it  will  prove  an  impediment  and  will  not  be  retained 
long. 

Balance  Between  Feed  and  Exercise. — Condition  is  the 
result  of  the  mutual  balance  between  feed  and  exercise,  and  re- 
quires the  keenest  powers  of  observ^ation  for  its  detection.  Over- 
feeding and  insufficient  exercise  on  the  one  hand,  and  under- 


RELATION  BETWEEN  HORSE  AND  MASTER  229 

feeding  with,  overw^ork  on  the  other,  are  the  two  causes  which 
destroy  the  balance  necessary  for  condition.  It  can  only  be 
obtained  by  degrees  and  cannot  be  forced  without  disastrous 
results.  Exercise  and  feeding  should  be  gradually  begun  and 
results  carefully  noted  day  by  day,  with  a  uniform  increase  up 
to  the  maximum  and  a  correspondingly  gradual  decrease  when 
the  horse  is  to  be  thrown  out  of  training. 

Hardening  the  Skin. — Draft  and  saddle  horses  should  have 
their  skins  hardened  to  the  friction  of  the  collar  and  saddle  in 
addition  to  being  rendered  physically  fit. 

A  marked  difference  between  individv/ils  is  found  in  the 
manner  in  which  they  round  into  form,  in  the  fitting  process. 
Frequently  those  which  attain  fitness  most  readily  are  the  first 
to  go  stale. 

Degree  and  Time. — The  more  extreme  tlie  degree  to  which  a 
horse  is  conditioned  the  shorter  the  period  during  which  that 
degTce  of  fitness  can  be  maintained.  The  modern  practice  of 
keeping  race  horses  in  training  and  fit  to  start  at  any  time  during 
prolonged  campaign  seasons  presents  many  more  difficulties  than 
fitting  for  a  single  race,  when  the  horses  can  be  trained  to  the 
minute. 

An  Intuitive  Ari. — The  fitting  of  horses  for  racing,  showing, 
or  work  is  an  art  which  requires  the  keenest  horse  sense,  judg- 
ment, and  discernment.  There  is  no  school  for  trainers ;  the 
art  is  natural,  not  acquired,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  master 
trainers  themselves  could  coach  another  to  do  what  is  intuitive 
with  them. 

Condition  has  an  economic  importoMce,  for  a  horse  is  capable 
of  his  maximum  efficiency,  in  his  respective  fields  of  ser\dce, 
only  when  fit.  The  work  horse,  on  account  of  tlie  regularity  of 
liis  occupation,  offers  the  least  difficulty  to  tlie  conditioner; 
while  the  saddle  and  harness  horse,  whose  work  is  more  severe 
when  it  does  come,  and  it  comes  mth  the  greatest  degree  of 
irregularity,  in  accordance  with  the  whim  of  their  owner,  re- 
quire special  care.  There  is  no  coiTelation  between  fitness  for 
work  and  resistance  to  unsoundness,  but  a  leg-weary  horse  is 
especially  liable  to  interfere,  forge,  stumble  or  slip,  thus  predis- 
posing to  permanent  injury. 


230  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


REVIEW 


1.  When,  where,  by  whom   and  for  what   purpose  were  horses  first 

used  f 

2.  What  is  the  master's  obligation  to  his  horse? 

3.  What  is  a  horse's  average  capacity  in  foot  tons  per  day,  draft,  and 

weight  carrying  f 

4.  What  factors  detennine  the  severitj^  of  a  horse's  labor? 

5.  Upon  what  does  the  draft  of  a  load  depend  ? 

6.  Describe  the  proper  fit  of  collar  and  adjustment  of  traces  and  hames. 

7.  How  should  horse  power  be  used  for  gi-eatest  efficiency? 

8.  When  is  a  horse  in  condition  and  how  is  it  indicated  ? 

9.  Of   what    does   conditioning   a   hoi>;e    consist?   and   what    personal 

qualifications  are  involved? 
10.  What  may  be  the  consequences  of  working  horses  when  not  in  con- 
dition ? 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  FEEDING  OF  HORSES 

One  of  our  leading  texts  on  feeding  has  this  most  appro- 
priate quotation  on  its  fly  leaf :  '^  The  eye  of  the  master  fattens 
his  cattle/' 

The  feeding  of  stock  is  both  an  art  and  a  science.  The  artist 
docs  not  employ  a  T-square  and  compass,  nor  does  he  resort  to 
mathematical  equations  to  express  his  conceptions  on  canvas. 
The  accuracy  of  his  results  is  in  proportion  to  his  skill.  The 
scientist,  on  the  other  hand,  is  exact  to  the  fifth  decimal  and  is 
held  to  the  most  absolute  accuracy  in  his  methods  of  determi- 
nation. 

Scientific  research  has  provided  us  witli  most  valuable  data 
bearing  on  the  subject  of  nutrition,  but  the  possession  of  such 
data  alone  does  not  constitute  all  of  the  qualifications  of  a  suc- 
cessful feeder.  In  an  effort  to  make  feeding  an  exact  science 
there  is  danger  of  losing  the  art.  Provide  two  feeders  of  similar 
classes  of  stock  with  the  same  scientific  data  and  allow  them  both 
access  to  the  same  mows  and  bins,  yet  there  may  be  a  wide  varia- 
tion in  the  results  obtained  by  each.  One  lacks  the  art  of  apply- 
ing the  science;  it  is  as  essential  to  know  how  as  what  to  feed. 

Art  in  Feeding  Horses. — This  is  especially  true  of  the  feed- 
ing of  horses.  The  block  animal  has  simply  to  &(3  a  superior 
carcass,  and  to  tliis  end  he  is  provided  with  every  advantage, 
and  requires  from  but  a  few  wrecks  to  three  years,  at  the  most,  for 
its  attainment.  A  horse's  obligation  is  to  do  rather  than  to  he; 
he  is  required  to  perform  more  complex  functions,  and  for  a 
period  of  such  duration  as  Avill  justify  the  gTcater  initial  invest- 
ment which  he  represents.  The  nature  of  a  horse's  work  is  so 
exacting  and  yet  so  variable,  his  opportunity  for  mental  and 
physical  disturbances  so  great,  and  his  misuse  so  common,  that 
in  his  case  no  standard  or  rule  can  be  applied  unalterably. 

Successful  horse  feeders  are  "  artists  "  with  eyes  for  the 
"  fattening  "  of  their  stock.     They  balance  their  rations,  not  so 

231 


232  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

much  from  a  knowledge  of  either  German  or  American  feeding 
standards,  as  from  the  actual  requirements  of  the  horses  them- 
selves. These  requirements  are  indicated  by  their  spirit  or 
"  feel  " ;  the  expression  of  their  countenance ;  the  condition  of 
their  coats  and  legs ;  and  the  color,  odor  and  consistency  of  the 
faeces.  If  feeders  read  these  signs  aright  it  will  usually  be  found 
that  the  rations  fed  will  check  up  very  closely  to  what  would  be 
a  balanced  ration  if  calculated  on  the  basis  of  generally  accepted 
feeding  standards. 

Two  Systems  Compared. — In  the  feeding  of  cattle  and  hogs 
the  lot  is  the  usual  unit,  but  in  the  case  of  horses,  even  more  than 
with  dairy  cows,  the  individual  is  the  unit,  and  even  his  individ- 
ual requirements  may  be  subject  to  considerable  variation. 
One  system  of  supposedly  economic  feeding  is  to  calculate,  in 
the  office,  from  the  requirements  set  forth  in  the  Wolff-Lehmann 
or  modified  standards,  the  rations  to  be  fed,  compare  them  with 
the  stock  of  feed  on  hand  and  the  number  of  horses  to  be  fed, 
then  notify  the  stable  boss  that  his  feed  should  last  till  a  certain 
date,  and  hold  him  responsible  for  any  shortage.  This  system 
ignores,  completely,  the  individual  requirements  of  the  different 
horses,  which  only  the  artist  feeder  can  appreciate  and  meet. 
Another  way  is  to  employ  a  thoroughly  competent  feeder,  pro- 
vide anything  and  everything  that  he  may  desire  in  the  feed 
line,  allow  him  every  latitude  in  the  use  of  it,  and  then  hold  him 
responsible  for  results  only,  as  measured  by  the  fitness  and 
capacity  of  his  horses  for  their  work.  The  former  method  may 
be  more  economic  of  feed  consumed,  but  the  latter  will  be  much 
more  productive  per  unit  of  feed  consumed,  which  is  the  real 
economic  consideration. 

How  the  Feed  is  Used. — The  horse  utilizes  the  constituents 
of  his  ration, — the  water,  ash,  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat, 
chemical  compounds, — in  the  growth  and  maintenance  of  his 
body  structure,  in  supporting  the  vital  processes  by  which  he 
lives,  and  in  performing  those  functions  which  we  designate  as 
work.  The  extent  to  which  the  ration  contributes  to  either  or 
all  of  these  depends  upon  the  relative  proportions  of  each  of  the 
compounds  it  contains. 

Water  is  present  in  considerable  amount  in  all  tissues,  being 


THE  FEEDING  OF  HORSES  233 

contained  in  the  protoplasm  of  tlie  cell,  the  unit  of  structure  of 
the  animal  body. 

The  inorganic  material  of  bone,  to  which  its  strength  and 
texture  are  due,  is  largely  calcium  phosphate,  although  other 
mineral  or  ash  constituents  are  present  in  other  tissues  of  the 
body. 

Protein  is  the  chief  source  of  the  cell  protoplasm  and  is  the 
most  important  tissue  builder. 

The  carbohydrates  are  fat  formers  and,  in  addition,  furnish 
the  energy  necessary  to  do"  work,  after  the  operation  of  the  vital 
functions  and  the  maintenance  of  the  body  temperature  have 
been  taken  care  of. 

Fat  ser\^es  the  same  purposes,  but  with  a  caloric  or  heat 
value  2.25  times  as  great. 

Rations  Not  All  Alike. — ^It  is  obvicms  that  mature  animals 
at  work,  at  rest,  pregnant  mares,  or  growing  colts  require  rations 
made  up  of  these  compounds  in  different  proportions.  When  the 
proportions  of  the  protein  on  the  one  hand  and  the  carbohy- 
drates plus  the  fats  on  the  other  are  such  as  to  just  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  horse  in  question,  with  no  excess  of  either, 
the  ration  is  said  to  be  halanced.  The  relation  of  the  protein 
to  the  carbohydrates  plus  fats  is  expressed  as  the  nutritive  ratio. 
This  is  determined  by  adding  to  the  digestible  carbohydrates 
contained  in  the  ration,  the  fats  multiplied  by  2.25,  then  divid- 
ing the  sum  by  the  amount  of  the  protein.  The  protein  is  to  the 
carbohydrate  as  one  is  to  the  quotient. 

The  ration  is  considered  wide  if  the  ratio  of  carbohydrates 
plus  fats  is  large  Avhen  compared  with  the  protein.  If  the  ratio 
is  small  the  ration  is  called  narrow. 

There  is  no  relation  between  the  balance  and  the  sufficiency 
of  the  ration.  A  horse  may  stance  on  a  perfectly  balanced  ration 
of  insufficient  quantity,  or  he  may  be  surfeited  with  feed  and 
yet  suffer  from  malnutrition  if  the  relative  amounts  of  protein 
and  carbohydrates  plus  fats  are  not  properly  balanced. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  maintenance  requirements,  which 
amount  to  about  50  per  cent  of  a  full  ration,  Avill  be  satisfied 
before  anything  is  available  to  be  turned  to  work,  the  full  ration, 
so  far  a^  quantity  is  concerned,  is  most  productive. 


234  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

Nutritive  Requirements  of  the  Horse. — The  horse's  daily 
nutritive  requirements,  according  to  the  Wolff-Lehmann  feed- 
ing standards,  are  as  follows.  The  amounts  are  for  one  thousand 
pounds  of  live  weight : 

Dry  Carbo-  Nutritive 

matter  Protein  hydrates  Fats  ratio 

Light   work    20  lb.        1.5  lb.  9.5  lb.        .4  lb.        1:7 

Medium  work    24  1b.         2      lb.         11      lb.         .6  1b.         1:6.2 

Heavy  work 26  lb.        2.5  lb.        13.3  lb.         .8  lb.        1:6 

Smith  *  concludes,  however,  from  the  investigations  of  Lang- 
worth,  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and 
others,  that  the  protein  standard  is  too  high ;  that  the  majority 
of  American  work  horses  are  doing  their  work  acceptably,  with- 
out loss  in  condition,  on  a  ration  of  1  to  8  instead  of  1  to  6. 

Three  Types  of  Feed. — A  ration  may  be  composed  of  three 
types  of  feedstuffs, — concentrates,  roughage,  and  succulence. 
The  relative  amounts  of  each,  which  the  ration  should  contain, 
will  be  determined  by  the  class  of  horses  fed.  The  horse  is  an 
automobile  in  that  he  moves  by  his  own  power,  and  is  not  a  sta- 
tionary engine,  as  are  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  so  far  as  their  pro- 
ductiveness is  concerned.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that  he 
expend  as  little  as  possible  of  energy  available,  in  simply  trans- 
porting the  mass  of  his  o^vn  body.  Hence,  the  horse  at  work  must 
carry  his  ration  in  more  or  less  concentrated  form,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  work.  But  some  bulk  in  the  digestive  tract 
is  necessary,  for  physiological  reasons.  A  horse  would  prac- 
tically starve  to  death  on  concentrates  alone.  Roughage  should 
be  allowed  but  its  amount  regulated  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  work,  and  it  should  be  fed  mostly  at  night,  when  it  will  cause 
least  interference.  An  idle  horse  can  take  a  greater  proportion 
of  his  ration  in  roughage  than  one  at  work,  and  the  drafter 
moving  at  a  walk,  with  weight  an  advantage,  can  be  allowed 
more  roughage  than  the  race  horse,  in  whose  case  weight  is  a 
handicap  and  bulk  an  impediment. 

Succulence  is  useful  in  the  ration,  not  only  for  the  nutrients 
it  contains  but  for  the  palatability  which  it  lends  and  its  physio- 

*  Profitable  Stock  Feeding. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  HORSES  235 

logical  effect  on  the  digestive  tract  and  condition  of  the  animal 
in  general.  The  use  of  succulence  for  horses  at  work  must  be 
g-uarded  or  it  will  induce  such  a  lax  condition  of  the  bowels  as 
to  seriously  interfere  with  their  serviceability.  Succulence  is 
admissible  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  a  horse  does,  as 
in  the  case  of  roughage. 

CONCENTRATES   FOR    HORSES 

Oats. — The  concentrate  best  adapted  to  the  feeding  of  horses 
is  oats ;  on  account  of  both  chemical  and  physical  composition, 
they  stand  first  in  this  class.  They  not  only  meet  the  protein  and 
carbohydrate  requirements  best,  but  the  hull  is  an  advantage,  in 
so  extending  the  kernel  as  to  insure  most  complete  digestion. 
Besides,  there  seems  ample  reason  for  believing  that  oats  improve 
the  fettle,  especially  of  haniess  and  saddle  horses.  The  cost 
])rice  of  oats  is  high,  however,  and  in  the  interests  of  economy 
they  may  be  displaced  by  the  other  feeds,  either  wholly  or  in 
part,  without  any  serious  detriment  to  the  ration. 

Corn  is  the  logical  substitute  for  oats  in  most  sections  of  this 
country.  In  fact,  economy  demands  the  use  of  corn  in  the  ration 
of  the  work  horse  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  it  is  used  at 
present. 

Wlien  its  general  use  in  the  corn  belt  States  is  considered, 
much  of  the  prejudice  of  the  Eastern  feeders  loses  weight.  The 
average  Iowa  horse,  for  instance,  is  produced  by  a  dam  which 
was  raised  on  com,  and  had  no  other  grain  during  the  period 
of  carrying  and  suckling  her  foal.  The  foal  receives  a  little 
cracked  corn  or  even  cob  com  for  his  first  bite,  with  the  amount 
gradually  increased  until  he  is  allowed  from  20  to  40  ears  per 
day  at  maturity.  In  spite  of  this  fact,  when  these  very  horses 
come  East,  top  our  markets,  and  pass  under  the  management  of 
the  city  stable  boss,  com  is  absolutely  prohibited  as  dangerous  to 
feed;  yet  it  requires  a  long  time  to  induce  and  teach  some  of 
these  horses  to  eat  anything  else. 

Corn  Supplements. — An  exclusive  com  ration  is  not  to  be 
recommended,  but  com  in  combination  with  either  oats  and 
bran,  bran  or  cottonseed  meal  alone  is  all  right.  Recent  inves- 
tigations at  the  Iowa  station  have  shown  that  com  with  cotton- 


236  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

seed  meal,  in  the  proportions  of  9  to  1,  constitutes  a  perfectly 
satisfactory  ration  for  the  work  horse,  and  is  effective  of  a  very 
material  saving  in  cost. 

Ear  corn  is  most  desirable  for  horse  feeding,  as  the  kernels 
keep  best  in  the  original  package,  as  it  were.  There  is  a  certain 
freshness  about  it  that  horses  prefer,  and,  besides,  they  are  com- 
pelled to  eat  it  slowly.  Corn  in  this  form,  however,  is  bulky  to 
handle  in  the  trade  and  few  city  stables  are  equipped  to  store  it 
in  any  quantity.  The  most  reasonable  objection  to  the  more 
general  feeding  of  com,  off  the  farm,  is  the  difficulty  in  securing 
ear  com  in  good  condition. 

Shelled  or  cracked  com  is  more  convenient  for  all  but  the 
farmer  feeder.  It  is  not  so  safe  nor  satisfactory  as  ear  corn, 
however. 

Cornmeal  coarsely  ground,  and  in  combination  with  oats, 
bran,  or  cottonseed  meal  is  excellent,  providing  the  corn  can  be 
ground  as  required.  But  the  commercial  meal  is  more  liable  to 
cause  trouble  by  its  oil  becoming  rancid  and  the  mass  spoiling 
than  is  corn  in  any  other  form. 

It  is  probable  that  the  opposition  to  corn  for  horses,  so 
common  among  both  city  feeders  and  their  veterinary  advisers, 
is  due  more  to  the  qviality  and  condition  of  the  corn  which  usu- 
ally reaches  city  horses  than  to  the  composition  of  the  com  itself. 
The  satisfactory  results  which  attend  its  judicious  use  in  the 
country,  generally,  would  seem  to  vindicate  the  contents  of  the 
com  crib  from  responsibility  for  the  alleged  evils  of  com  feed- 
ing. By  properly  balancing  the  ration  of  which  corn  forms  a 
part,  the  nuich  dreaded  "  heating  "  effect  may  be  largely  over- 
come. 

Bran  ranks  third  as  a  horse  feed,  although  it  can  hardly  be 
considered  as  an  exclusive  feed,  except  for  occasional  or  exce]> 
tional  use.  In  work  stables  it  is  customary  to  feed  a  bran  mash, 
preferably  wet,  at  least  once  a  week,  and  that  Saturday  night. 
The  practice  is  commendable,  as  it  tends  to  offset  the  effect  of 
continued  high  feeding  of  horses  at  hard  work,  as  well  as  being 
acceptable  to  the  horses  for  the  sake  of  variety.  Much  depends 
upon  the  preparation  of  the  mash.  The  coarse,  flaky,  winter 
wheat  bran  is  preferable;   add  sufficient  water   to  moisten  it 


THE  FEEDING  OF  HORSES  237 

thoroughly,  so  that  it  breaks  nicely,  but  without  any  sem- 
blance to  a  slop,  then  season  with  salt  and  a  little  ginger  or 
gentian. 

Shorts  and  middlings  are  too  concentrated  to  be  fed  to  horses 
except  in  small  quantities,  and  then  they  should  h^  in  combina- 
tion with  some  of  the  other  more  bulky  grains.  Some  horses  show 
an  especial  susceptibility  to  digestive  disturbances  when  mid- 
dlings are  fed. 

Dried  brewers*  grains,  now  quite  generally  fed  to  dairy 
cattle,  have  not  been  utilized  by  horse  feeders  to  the  extent  that 
trials  of  their  feeding  value  would  seem  to  justify.  The  in- 
creasing demand  for  them  among  dairymen  will  no  doubt  ad- 
vance the  price,  but  they  are  comparatively  much  cheaper  than 
either  oats  or  bran.  In  combination  with  either  of  these  or  with 
com  they  have  given  satisfaction  so  far  as  they  have  been  tried. 
They  are  reckoned  about  equivalent  to  oats,  pound  for  pound. 

Barley  is  the  most  common  cereal  feed  for  horses  in  some 
parts  of  the  country  where  it  is  extensively  grown.  It  is  well 
adapted  for  that  pui'pose  provided  it  is  crushed  before  feeding. 
The  presence  of  the  awns  may  prove  irritating  to  the  horse's 
mouth. 

Canada  field  peas  deserve  more  general  consideration  than 
they  receive  from  horse  feeders.  When  available  they  may  be 
profitably  employed  in  combination  with  other  concentrates  in 
making  up  the  work  horse  ration. 

Linseed  oil  meal  is  more  commonly  fed  as  a  conditioner  than 
for  its  nutritive  properties,  although  the  Iowa  station  has  sho\vn 
favorable  results  from  oil  meal  combined  with  corn  and  oats  for 
the  purpose  of  reducing  the  cost  of  the  ration,  the  oil  meal  dis- 
placing the  oats  otherwise  required  to  balance  the  com.  It  has 
a  most  valuable  physiological  effect  on  the  bowels,  coat,  and  the 
nutritive  functions  in  general.  It  helps  restore  condition  in 
horses  which  have  either  been  overdone  by  feeding  or  are  in  a 
state  of  malnutrition.  It  is  usually  fed  to  secure  finish  and 
bloom,  in  fitting  horses  for  show  or  sale,  in  quantities  up  to  but 
not  exceeding  a  pound  per  day. 

Cottonseed  meal  has  been  tested  in  feeding  trials  at  both 
the  Pennsylvania  and  Iowa  stations,  with  such  satisfactory  re- 


238  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

suits  that  it  is  now  generally  recommended  as  a  complete  or 
partial  substitute  for  oats,  in  combination  with  corn,  to  cheapen 
the  ration.  No  bad  results  are  repoi-ted  from  feeding  two  pounds 
per  day.  It  is  not  palatable  and  its  taste  should  be  obscured  in 
the  mixture  with  other  feeds. 

Molasses. — Little  was  said  of  molasses  as  a  horse  feed,  al- 
though it  had  been  fed  to  a  limited  extent  as  a  conditioner,  until 
about  1900,  w^hen  a  United  States  Army  veterinarian,  Doctor 
Griffin,  reported  its  exclusive  use  with  hay  by  the  native  Cubans, 
their  hardy  ponies  doing  remarkably  well.  This  report  was  pub- 
lished in  the  American  Veteriyiary  Review  and  engaged  the  at- 
tention of  Doctor  Geo.  L.  Bems,  of  Brooklyn,  New  York,  who 
gave  it  a  thorough  trial  in  some  of  the  large  stables  of  draft 
horses  under  his  supen'ision.  The  results  were  such  as  to  thor- 
oughly convince  him  that  molasses  deserved  a  place  in  the  dietary 
of  all  work  horses,  not  alone  for  the  sake  of  economy  but  because 
it  has  a  most  beneficial  effect  upon  the  digestive  system.  Dr. 
Berns  still  holds  to  this  opinion,  which  has  been  quite  generally 
confirmed  by  otbers  who  have  made  observations  along  this  line. 
Remarkable  results  have  been  secured  by  a  liberal  feeding  of 
molasses  in  bringing  back  to  condition  horses  either  convalescent 
from  sickness  or  those  in  very  poor  flesh.  It  is  a  valuable 
"  coaxer ''  to  shy  feeders.  Its  laxative  effect  must  be  guarded 
against  to  a  certain  extent.  Molasses  is  usually  fed  in  quanti- 
ties of  from  one  pint  to  one  quart,  per  feed,  diluted  with  at  least 
an  equal  quantity  of  water  and  preferably  mixed  with  other 
feeds.  Reports  are  made  of  feeding  as  much  as  ten  pounds  per 
day  to  mules  in  Louisiana.  There  are  about  twelve  pounds  to 
the  gallon.  It  is  especially  well  adapted  to  the  coarse,  mixed 
ration  in  which  cut  hay  or  straw  forms  the  base. 

Whatever  the  ration,  its  palatability  as  well  as  its  nutritive 
value  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  molasses.  It  is  a  constit- 
uent of  many  proprietary  feeds,  serving  to  disguise  and  render 
more  edible  the  fraudulent  ones.  The  black  strap  cane  molasses, 
not  the  beet-sugar  product,  is  the  kind  fed.  Undiluted  molasses 
is  unsatisfactory,  as  it  smears  the  muzzle,  and  from  it  the  sides 
of  the  horse,  and  is  especially  objectionable  in  fly  time. 

Wheat  and  rye  both  make  acceptable  horse  feeds  provided 


THE  FEEDING  OF  HORSES  239 

they  are  crushed  to  prevent  tlie  formation  of  paste  in  the  mouth. 
The  market  price  of  wheat,  especially,  allows  of  its  being  fed 
only  under  unusual  conditions. 

Other  materials,  the  availability  of  which  is  more  or  less 
restricted,  may  prove  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  horse's  ration  Avhen 
and  where  they  can  be  secured  at  low  cost  For  example,  one 
enterprising  Philadelphia  city  teamster  met  the  high  cost  of 
oats  and  com,  of  recent  years,  by  introducing  a  ration  of  mo- 
lasses and  stale  bread,  on  which  his  horses  did  well. 

ROUGHAGE    FOR    HORSES 

Timothy  is  in  a  class  by  itself  as  a  roughage  for  horses,  the 
leafless  nature  of  the  plant  insuring  nearly  perfect  curing  and 
freedom  from  dust  in  the  hay.  In  addition  there  is  a  constrin- 
gent property  in  timothy  by  virtue  of  which  horses  filled  up  with 
it  keep  hard  and  do  not  become  washy  on  the  road,  as  horses  will 
if  fed  on  the  hay  from  a  legume  or  on  fresh  grass.  The  market 
value  of  timothy  hay  is  not  in  accordance  with  its  chemical  com- 
position. The  very  feature  which  horsemen  favor  in  it  is  cor- 
related with  a  low  coeflicient  of  digestibility.  As  a  means  of 
affording,  in  the  ration,  the  bulk  and  volume  necessary  for  a 
physiological  distention  of  the  digestive  tract,  to  maintain  it 
normally  functional,  timothy  is  ideal.  Horses  like  it,  if  not  too 
ripe,  but  as  a  source  of  nutriment  it  is  inferior  to  the  hay  of 
clover,  alfalfa,  and  other  legumes. 

Legumes,  with  their  extensive  leaf  surfaces,  are  much  richer 
in  digestible  nutrients  but  more  difiicult  to  properly  cure.  When 
im]^roperly  cured  they  are  unfit  to  be  fed  to  horses.  The  causal 
relation  between  clover  hay  and  heaves  has  been  fairly  well 
estal)lished.  It  is  alleged  not  to  be  due  to  the  dust,  in  general, 
with  which  clover  hay  is  likely  to  be  filled,  but  to  a  specific 
fungus,  the  growth  of  which  is  peculiar  to  legumes.  It  is  true 
that  the  history  of  most  cases  of  heaves  reveals  clover  hay  in  the 
ration,  although  there  is  notliing  remarkable  about  this,  as  tlie 
majority  of  horses  are  so  fed.  On  the  whole,  we  cannot  afford  to 
count  clover-mixed  hay  out  of  the  ration  of  the  average  horse. 
But  in  view  of  the  possibility  that  may  result  from  feeding  it, 
we  should  consider  carefully  the  quality,  and  guard  the  quan- 


240  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

tity,  of  that  allowed.  It  is  best  mixed  with  timothy  in  about  such 
proportions  as  come  in  the  second  season's  cutting  from  a  timo- 
thy-clover seeding. 

Alfalfa  is  in  the  experimental  stage  as  a  constituent  of  the 
horse's  ration.  There  is  no  reason  why  its  judicious  use,  in  com- 
bination with  timothy,  should  not  be  recommended.  Grood 
alfalfa  hay  is  about  the  most  tempting  thing  that  can  be  put 
before  a  horse  in  the  winter  time,  as  he  himself  will  attest  if 
allowed  tlie  opportunity.  In  addition  to  its  paiatability  and 
high  content  of  easily  available  protein,  alfalfa  has  a  beneficial 
action  on  the  digestive  tract.  The  amount  fed,  with  timothy, 
can  be  so  regulated  as  to  control  the  bowels  to  a  fine  degi^ee.  On 
account  of  its  10  to  15  per  cent  of  protein,  alfalfa  should  be 
balanced  by  the  other  constituents  of  the  ration,  lest  an  excess 
of  protein  be  fed.  An  excess  of  nitrogen  would  require  elimina- 
tion by  the  kidneys,  which  may  prove  injurious. 

Alfalfa  hay  has  not  been  fed  in  the  East  extensively  enough 
to  determine  whether  or  not  it  may  induce  heaves.  Those  parts 
of  the  country  where  it  is  most  extensively  grown  and  fed  fur- 
nish only  exceptional  cases  of  heaves  from  any  cause.  It  would 
be  difficult  to  obtain  a  cured  forage  plant  in  a  more  perfect  state 
of  preservation  than  some  of  the  alfalfa  hay  that  is  produced  in 
the  semi-arid  Kocky  Mountain  States.  So  long  as  hay  produced 
under  the  ideal  conditions  for  growth  and  curing  Avhich  prevail 
there  can  be  placed  on  Eastern  markets,  to  compete  with  the 
home-grown  product,  favor  is  likely  to  be  shown  the  fonner. 
The  Eastern  fanner  should  be  encouraged  in  the  production  of 
alfalfa.  The  addition  of  alfalfa  hay  to  a  ration  will  both  reduce 
the  cost  of  maintenance  and  improve  the  condition  of  any  class 
of  horses. 

Groimd  alfalfa  may  be  used  in  place  of  bran,  in  combination 
with  other  concentrates,  but  unless  combined  with  molasses  or 
moistened  it  is  so  light  and  fine  as  to  be  readily  blown  away, 
and  has  the  objection  of  being  dusty.  Many  prepared  alfalfa 
feeds,  of  this  class,  are  offered  to  the  trade.  The  hay  has  the 
same  nutritive  value  and,  if  of  good  quality,  will  be  as  com- 
pletely and  enthusiastically  consumed  as  when  artificially  pre- 
pared.   These  facts  argue  for  the  more  general  use  of  the  hay. 

Cow  pea  and  soy  bean  hay  are  both  reported  upon  favor- 


THE  FEEDING  OF  HORSES  241 

ablj  by  those  who  have  fed  them  as  a  part  of  the  roughage.  Like 
corn  stover  they  are  available  to  feed  only  on  the  farms  where 
grown. 

Corn  Stover. — In  the  early  winter,  before  the  leeching  and 
blowing  away  of  its  most  nutritive  and  palatable  parts  has  been 
accomplished,  corn  stover  is  one  of  the  best  kinds  of  roughage 
for  horses,  eitlier  at  rest  or  at  work.  It  has  a  nutritive  value 
about  equal  to  timotliy  hay,  from  which  it  affords  a  change. 
Horses  do  not  fill  to  excess  on  it  as  they  do  on  hay,  and  it  is  posi- 
tively beneficial  to  horses  which  have  mild  cases  of  heaves 
aggravated  by  the  feeding  of  hay  of  even  good  quality.  Horses 
eat  the  leaves  and  pick  at  tlie  stalks  readily  without  shredding. 
In  fact,  they  seem  to  prefer  stripping  the  leaves  from  the  stalks 
rather  than  seeking  out  tlie  finer  parts  from  among  the  sections 
of  stalk,  in  the  cut  or  shredded  stover.  Idle  horses  will  strip 
and  eat  quite  a  large  portion  of  the  stalk  itself,  if  not  over-sup- 
plied with  the  finer  parts.  More  com  stover  will  be  eaten  if  hay 
is  not  furnished  at  the  same  time. 

In  many  parts  of  tlie  Soutli  the  tops  and  leaves  are  pulled 
from  the  corn  plants,  cured,  and  done  up  in  bundles  for  horse 
feed.  Pulled  com  and  sheaf  oats  are  highly  esteemed  for  the 
purpose  of  bringing  back  a  stale  show  or  race  horse  or  to  start 
one  already  in  poor  condition. 

Oat  straw,  if  bright,  well  cleaned,  and  not  too  Hpe,  does 
well  for  horses  not  at  hard  work.  Its  feeding  condition  is  im- 
proved by  chaffing  and  moistening  with  diluted  molasses. 

Sheaf  Oats. — ^\^len  available,  sheaf  oats  are  excellent  for 
horses  with  am]^le  time  in  which  to  feed. 

Cereal  Hay. — The  cereals,  especially  barley  and  oats,  either 
or  both  in  combination  with  field  peas,  make  excellent  hay  for 
horses  if  cut  in  the  dough  stage.  Their  use,  like  that  of  sheaf 
oats  and  pulled  corn,  would  he  resorted  to  in  order  to  meet  special 
requirements  or  secure  unusual  results,  rather  than  in  the  eco- 
nomic maintenance  of  horse  power. 

SUCCULENCE 

Succulence  is  most  essential  to  horses  which  do  not  have  the 
stimulating  effect  of  tlieir  ration  offset  by  an  abundance  of  ex- 
16 


242  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

ercise,  although  its  use  is  not  objected  to  either  with  work  horses 
or  even  race  horses  in  training. 

Pasture. — Grass  is  the  most  natural  and  satisfactory  form 
in  which  to  furnish  succulence,  as  it  also  necessitates  healtliful 
exercise  in  the  open  air  in  order  to  secure  it.  Unfortunately,  it 
is  not  available  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  nor  under  all  circum- 
stances.    It  must,  therefore,  be  substituted  or  supplemented. 

Carrots  are  the  best  root  crop  for  horse  feeding.  Like  other 
roots,  their  physiological  benefits  outweigh  their  nutritive  value. 
For  the  winter  feeding  of  colts  and  brood  mares  they  are  espe- 
cially desirable,  while  they  form  a  staple  article  of  diet  in  most 
stallion-importing  establishments,  where  it  is  necessary  to  carry 
the  horses  along  in  high  condition  all  the  time  and  yet  keep  them 
right  Carrots  are  fed  either  whole  or  sliced,  but  to  slice  them 
to  a  size  too  large  to  swallow  but  too  small  to  chew  is  more  liable 
to  induce  choking  than  if  fed  uncut. 

Soiling  crops  are  sometimes  fed  to  breeding  or  sho-w  horses. 
In  France  it  is  common  to  feed  green  cut  alfalfa  (Lucerne). 
Such  green  material  must  be  fed  to  horses  as  soon  as  \\dlted  and 
before  heating  or  decomposition  of  any  degree  begins. 

Silage  has  been  condemned  by  most  horse  feeders  and  justi- 
fiably so,  for  much  of  the  data  concerning  its  us&  have  been 
unfavorable,  fatal  results  being  commonly  reported.  Recent 
feeding  experiments,  however,  have  demonstrated  that  silage 
may  be  safely  fed  to  work  horses  and  growing  colts,  if  of  best 
quality  and  limited  to  from  ten  to  twenty  pounds-  per  day. 
Silage  the  least  bit  moldy  or  spoiled  is  dangerous  for  horses. 

WATER 

Water  of  good  quality  and  ample  quantity  is  essential  to  the 
good  health,  comfort,  and  efiiciency  of  horses  at  work.  A  thirsty 
horse  does  not  make  the  most  of  his  ration ;  his  digestive  func- 
tions are  impaired  by  the  sense  of  thirst.  Horses  should  be 
watered  regularly,  so  they  may  be  able  to  anticipate  their  oppor- 
tunities. Regular  watering  at  frequent  intervals  will  probably 
insure  the  horse  drinking  more  of  fresher  w^ater  in  the  course  of 
the  day  than  though  allowed  free  access  to  water  in  the  stall  at 


THE  FEEDING  OF  HORSES  243 

all  times.  The  idea,  more  prevalent  than  one  would  believe, 
that  a  horse  should  be  stinted  in  his  water  supply  is  incompre- 
hensible. If  the  horse  has  much  liberty  in  this  matter  he  will 
rarely  drink  to  his  own  detriment. 

Watering  when  Warm. — It  is  dangerous  to  allow  a  fill  of 
water  when  the  horse  is  very  warm,  but  better  then  than  never, 
as  is  liable  to  be  the  case  in  many  poorly  managed  stables.  A 
moderate  drink  will  refresh  and  benefit  any  horse  at  any  time. 

Public  Watering  Troughs. — Indiscriminate  patronage  of 
public  watering  troughs  in  cities  is  fraught  Avith  the  danger  of 
glanders  infection.  A  bucket,  which  could  be  filled  direct  from 
the  inflow,  and  the  horses  watered  from  it,  might  well  be  made  a 
part  of  the  equipment  of  each  Avork  horse  outfit. 

'Time  to  Water. — Theoretically,  watering  should  precede 
feeding,  in  order  not  to  flush  on  into  the  intestines  the  incom- 
pletely digested  feed  contained  in  the  stomach,  at  the  time  the 
drink  is  taken.  In  practice,  ho«w"ever,  it  is  found  that  many 
horses  Avill  refuse  to  drink  before  eating,  especially  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  will  seek  a  drink  soon  after  feeding,  if  allowed  any  free- 
dom in  the  matter.  It  is  best  not  to  follow  feeding  immediately 
by  a  drink. 

A  horse's  drinking  periods  should  be  so  arranged  that  he  will 
not  go  to  work  immediately  after  a  full  drink.  The  common 
practice  of  alloAving  horses  to  drink  their  fill  upon  coming  into 
the  stable  from  work  and  again  when  going  out  is  most  conven- 
ient, but  is  not  safe,  although  often  followed  with  impunity. 

The  one  time  at  which  a  horse  requires  and  appreciates  a 
drink  most,  yet  is  offered  it  least  frequently,  is  the  last  thing 
at  night,  after  having  consumed  his  full  allowance  of  roughage 
and  being  ready  to  lie  down  to  sleep.  Every  horse,  having  worked 
through  the  day,  should  be  allowed  an  opportimity  to  drink  at 
this  time. 

SALT 

Salt  is  required  in  small  quantities,  frequently,  and  regu- 
larly. The  irregular  allowance  of  too  much  salt  with  its  con- 
sequent drinking  of  an  excess  of  water  does  not  meet  the  require- 
ments in  this  respect.     If  given  frequently  or  provided  for  the 


244  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

horse  to  help  himself,  only  limited  amounts  will  be  taken.  A 
satisfactory  method  of  furnishing  salt  is  to  season  the  grain  feed. 
A  limip  of  r(x?k  salt  in  the  feed  box  does  fairly  well,  although  the 
quality  of  the  salt  is  not  good.  One  of  the  best  patented  de- 
vices is  a  container  for  a  cylindrical  cake  of  high-grade  salt,  so 
arranged  that  the  cake  rotates  as  the  horse  licks  the  bottom  of 
it.  This  insures  the  salt  being  used  off  evenly,  the  cylinder  last- 
ing until  it  is  but  a  thin  disc.  The  container  screws  into  the 
wall  of  the  stall  at  a  convenient  height.  Loose  salt  should  not  be 
made  too  easv  of  access. 


METHODS   OF    FEEDING 

Regularity  of  Feeding. — Horses  are  creatures  of  habit  and 
should  be  so  managed  that  their  daily  routine  is  regular  in  order 
that  each  event  may  be  anticipated  in  turn.  This  rule  applies 
to  feeding  Avith  especial  force,  it  being  the  most  important  event 
of  the  day.  Regularity  of  feeding  promotes  digestion,  assimi- 
lation, and  peace  of  mind.  All  horses  in  a  stable  should  be  fed 
at  once,  with  as  little  delay  as  possible  in  getting  to  each,  in  turn, 
after  the  operation  has  begun.  In  most  large  stables  the  drivers 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  feeding,  that  matter  being  better 
attended  to  by  one  man,  who  feeds  each  horse  impartially  and  in 
accordance  with  his  individual  requirements. 

Time  of  Feeding. — The  daily  ration  is  divided  into  three 
feeds  given,  when  circumstances  will  permit,  about  six  hours 
apart.  City  delivery  service  often  necessitates  much  longer  in- 
tervals between  meals.  Just  a  bit  of  roughage  should  he  allowed 
in  the  morning,  the  bulk  of  it  going  with  the  evening  feed.  The 
division  of  grain  is  about  equal  for  the  three  feeds,  less  being 
allowed  at  noon  if  tlie  dinner  hour  is  short. 

Omission  of  the  noon  feed  is  practiced  by  some  employers 
of  horses  and  with  apparent  good  judgment.  The  horse's  di- 
gestive system,  unlike  that  of  the  ruminating  cattle  and  sheep, 
is  so  arranged  that  he  requires  feed  in  small  amounts,  at  com- 
paratively frequent  intervals.  There  can  be  no  argument  of  the 
fact  that,  under  ideal  or  natural  conditions,  he  should  receive  at 
least  three  feeds  a  day.    But  it  is  economically  impossible  to  in- 


THE  FEEDING  OF  HORSES  245 

sure,  to  all  work  horses,  ideal  conditions.  Short  noon  hours, 
horses  hot  when  noontime  arrives,  and  compelled  to  stand  in  the 
sun  and  fight  flies  while  eating,  wasting  much  of  their  ration, 
and  then  to  go  directly  to  hard  work  after  feeding — this  is  the 
experience  of  many  work  horses.  The  nose-bag  or  other  feeding 
device  which  will  prevent  the  waste  of  a  large  part  of  its  con- 
tents, especially  in  fly  time,  has  not  yet  been  perfected.  It  is 
as  injurious  to  feed  a  hot,  tired  horse  as  it  is  to  water  him  when 
liot.  Feed  consumed  under  such  conditions  is  not  well  digested 
and  assimilated,  even  if  it  does  no  harm,  and  its  nutritive  value 
to  the  horse  is,  therefore,  small. 

The  danger  of  colic  from  putting  a  horse  to  work  immedi- 
ately after  eating  is  unquestionable,  as  most  cases  of  indigestion 
in  working  horses  occur  between  one  and  four  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon.  In  view  of  all  these  facts,  there  is  good  reason  to 
conclude  that  the  noontime  spent  in  rest  after  a  moderate  drink, 
and  the  amount  of  the  noon  feed  added  to  the  night  allowance, 
would  be  more  beneficial  to  the  horse  if  it  is  impossible  to  allow 
him  proper  time  and  place  in  which  to  feed. 

The  character  and  amount  of  the  ration  should  be  modified 
to  meet  each  change  in  the  work  of  the  horses.  Those  well  fed 
and  working  regularly  are  very  susceptible  to  the  so-called 
"  Monday  morning  "  disease,  if  laid  off  for  a  day  or  two.  A 
short  period  of  idleness  calls  for  a  material  reduction  of  the  con- 
centrates of  the  ration  and  an  increase  in  the  lighter  constit- 
uents, as  bran  or  succulence.  Horses  temporarily  put  out  of 
business  by  storms  or  holidays  should  be  exercised,  in  addition 
to  having  their  ration  cut  do^vn.  Once  a  horse  has  shown,  by 
previous  attacks,  that  he  is  especially  predisposed  to  trouble  of 
this  character,  he  demands  the  closest  attention,  yet  if  this  be 
accorded  him  he  may  work  as  satisfactorily  as  any  horse  in  the 
stable. 

Special  preparation  of  the  feed  is  of  little  advantage  to  the 
normal  horse,  under  usual  conditions.  The  crushing  of  oats  at 
the  ordinary  mill  is  not  considered  worth  while;  although  the 
installation  of  small  mills,  in  stables  which  are  already  supplied 
with  the  electric  current,  may  bring  the  cost  of  crushing  down 
to  a  point  where  the  end  justifies  the  means.     For  old  or  over- 


246  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

worked  horses,  the  artificial  mastication  insures  the  more  com- 
plete utilization  of  the  feed.  Crushed  or  rolled  oats  have  a 
corrective  effect  on  the  bowels  of  horses  prone  to  be  washy,  which 
would  warrant  their  use  in  such  cases. 

Cutting  or  chaffing  hay  or  straw  makes  it  possible  to  com- 
bine it  witli  the  concentrates  of  the  ration  to  the  mutual  improve- 
ment of  both.  The  roughage  extends  the  concentrates,  so  that 
they  will  be  more  slowly  eaten  and  more  perfectly  digested.  The 
addition  of  the  concentrates  induces  the  horse  to  eat  more  of  the 
roughage,  especially  if  tlie  latter  is  straw. 

Moistening  hay  or  straw,  especially  if  chaffed  or  dusty,  im- 
proves its  condition. 

Variety  in  the  ration  is  most  acceptable  to  the  horse  and  is 
to  be  sought,  but  its  introduction  should  not  involve  any  sudden 
or  radical  change,  especially  if  either  corn  or  middlings  be  used. 

REVIEW 

1.  Why  should  horse  feeders,  especially,  be  "artists"? 

2.  How  is  the  feed  used  by  the  horse? 

3.  What  are  the  daily  nutritive  requirements  of  a  horse? 

4.  Of  what  three  types  of  feed  may  the  ration  be  composed,  and  what 

are  the  special  requirements  of  the  horse  in  regard  to  each? 

5.  Why  are  oats  considered  the  most  desirable  concentrate  for  horse 

feeding? 

6.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  com  as  a  hoi-se 

feed? 

7.  To  what  extent  may  molasses  be  fed  to  advantage? 

8.  Why  is  timothy  hay  especially  in  demand  by  horse  feeders? 

9.  Of  what  value  is  alfalfa  to  the  horse  feeder  and  how  should  it  be 

fed? 

10.  What  is  the  importance  of  succulence  for  horses  and  what  may  be 

its  source? 

11.  At  what  times,  in  what  quantities,  under  what  conditions  and  where 

should  horees  be  pennitted  to  drink? 

12.  Why  should  horses  be  fed  at  regular  periods? 

13.  Under  what  circumstances  may  it  be  advisable  to  eliminate  the  noon 

feed? 

14.  What  precautions  should  be  observed  in  the  feeding  of  work  horses, 

temporarily  idle? 

15.  When  should  the  grain  be  ground,  the  roughage  cut,  or  the  ration 

varied? 


CHAPTER  XV 

STABLES 

The  character  of  the  habitations  in  which  horses  are  re- 
quired to  live  varies  from  the  simplest  kind  of  an  enclosure, 
affording  no  protection  whatever,  to  the  most  luxuriantly  ap- 
pointed quarters,  as  those  in  which  some  gentlemen's  show  horses 
are  stabled.  As  a  rule,  the  more  artificial  the  conditions  under 
which  horses  are  used,  the  more  complete  the  system  of  stabling 
required. 

There  are  two  general  classes  of  stables,  town  and  country, 
the  principal  features  of  location,  design,  constniction,  and  man- 
agement of  which  are,  necessarily,  quite  different. 

Location. — There  can  usually  be  very  little  option  exercised 
in  the  selection  of  the  site  of  the  town  stable,  but  in  the  country 
the  situation  of  the  horse's  quarters  should  be  given  careful  con- 
sideration. The  horse  stable  may  be  distinct  from  or  included 
within  the  farm  barn;  but  in  either  case  it  should  be  built  on 
high,  well-drained  ground,  with  a  southern  exposure,  if  prac- 
ticable. The  benefits  of  the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun's  rays  are 
insured  for  a  longer  period  in  the  day,  and  the  temperature  of 
the  stable  is  maintained  more  uniform,  if  admitted  through 
southern  vdndows.  If  a  double  row  of  stalls,  back  to  back,  are 
to  be  provided  for,  an  east  and  west  exposure  will  be  fairest  to 
the  occupants  of  both  sides. 

The  design  and  arrangement  of  stables  should  be  made  with 
a  view  to  providing  sufficient  room  to  accommodate'  the  requisite 
number  of  horses  and  vehicles  to  be  housed,  proper  light,  venti- 
lation and  drainage,  comfort  and  security  of  the  horses,  and  con- 
venience of  attendants  and  patrons.  These  being  insured,  the 
simpler  the  design  the  better. 

Construction.^ — Frame  stables  predominate  in  the  country, 
and  if  well  built  are  entirely  satisfactory,  so  far  as  the  essentials 
outlined  above  are  concerned,  mth  the  exception  of  greater 
danger  from  fire.     Town  stables  are  more  frequently  built  of 

247 


248       .  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

brick,  stone,  concrete,  terra-cotta  block,  or  plaster.  In  the  use 
of  these  materials  for  construction  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  a  solid  wall  of  masonry  is  cold  and  damp,  and  therefore 
sweats  when  the  moist,  wann  air  of  the  stable  comes  in  contact 
with  it.  ^\llen  horses  are  to  stand  next  to  outside  walls  they 
should  be  built  with  a  hollow  centre  for  a  dead  air  space.  Either 
concrete  blocks,  the  hollow  tile,  terra  cotta,  or  plaster  have  this 
advantage  over  the  solid  wall  of  stone  or  brick  or  the  poured 
concrete  construction.  The  plaster  or  stucco,  either  rough  cast 
or  smooth  finished,  on  expanded  metal  lath,  is  a  form  of  con- 
struction which  has  proved  very  satisfactory  in  a  limited  way 
and  is  comparatively  inexpensive. 

Dimensions  of  a  stable  are  determined  by  the  individual 
allowance  for  stalls,  alleys,  floor  space,  and  other  requiromonts. 

Stalls  are  of  two  sorts,  (1)  tfi^  loose  box  stall  and  (2)  the 
straight,  standing,  or  slip  stall.  Box  stalls  allow  a  horse  more 
liberty,  either  standing  or  lying  doA\ai,  and  freedom  to  roll,  an 
opportunity  very  much  appreciated  by  most  horses.  Every 
stable  should  have  at  least  one,  but  on  account  of  the  additional 
room  and  extra  care  required  they  are  not  practicable  for  all 
horses  in  large  stables.  The  idea  of  turning  a  horse  ^'  loose  "  to 
"  run  "  in  a  box  stall  is  unreasonable.  There  is  no  advantage 
in  having  them  larger  than  twelve  feet  square  except  in  the  case 
of  a  maternity  or  hospital  st:all,  where  it  is  necessary  to  get  about 
the  horse  readily  and  to  accommodate  a  foal.  The  straight  stall 
is  the  one  in  Avhich  the  majority  of  horses  are  confined,  and 
should  be  of  sufficient  length  to  protect  the  horse  from  being 
kicked  liack  of  the  heel  post,  and  wide  enough  to  enable  him  to 
lie  down  in  comfort,  yet  not  to  induce  him  to  attempt  to  roll. 
At  least  eight  feet  from  manger  to  heel  post  and  five  feet  in 
width  is  necessary  for  that  purpose,  the  size  of  the  horse  to 
govern.  Horses  shoAv  better  in  shorter  stalls,  and  in  sale  and 
show  stables  safety  is  often  sacrificed  on  this  account. 

Stall  partitions  should  be  about  eight  feet  high  in  front  and 
five  to  six  feet  in  the  rear,  heel  posts  carried  to  the  ceiling,  and 
should  not  be  built  up  solid,  but  be  open  to  allow  a  free  circula- 
tion of  air  through  the  stalls.  In  a  stall  with  solid  walls  the 
horse  lying  down  is  deprived  of  fresh  air  to  such  an  extent  as  to 


STABLES  249 

almost  smother  him  in  some  stables.  Planks  or  panels  should 
be  horizontal,  not  upright,  in  order  not  to  be  split  or  shattered  if 
kicked.  This  arrangement  brings  the  impression  of  the  shoe 
across  the  grain  of  the  wood.  Floors  can  be  kept  drier  and  be 
more  thoroughly  cleaned  if  the  partition  does  not  come  quite  to 
the  floor  (Fig.  130). 

Bales. — One  of  our  most  experienced  American  authori- 
ties *  is  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  bale  in  place  of  the  fixed  par- 
tition to  separate  hoi*ses,  claiming  for  it  economy  of  space  and 
more  latitude  and  comfort  for  the  hoi*ses,  with  equal  safety.  The 
bale  consists  of  two  planks  or  boards,  _ironed  together,  to  make 
a  widtli  of  three  feet,  suspended  18  inches\from  the  floor  by  a 
hook  and  ring  in  the  Avail  at  the  head  of  the  stall  and  by  a  rope 
or  cliain  at  ihe  rear.  Four  feet  is  a  sufficient  allowance  for  an 
ordinary  sized  horse  between  Ijales,  and  they  will  do  well  in  even 
less. 

Stall  Floors. — Stall  floors  may  be  of  clay,  plank,  or  pave- 
ment. In  the  selection  of  flooring  material  there  are  many  ends 
to  be  considered.  Well  tamped  clay  is  noiseless,  affords  a  firm 
footing  unless  wet,  and  without  question  places  the  horse  on  the 
most  natural  tread.  It  does  very  well  in  country  stables  where 
the  clay  is  available,  straw  is  cheap,  and  manure  is  of  value,  with 
the  horse  out  of  the  stable  much  of  the  time.  It  is  especially  well 
adapted  for  use  in  box  stalls.  However,  it  is  not  easily  cleaned 
and  requires  frequent  repairing  to  keep  the  surface  even  and 
free  from  holes  and  depressions.  Plank  floors  do  not  tire  a 
standing  horse,  are  warm  to  lie  upon,  and  are  not  slippery,  but 
they  are  neither  durable  nor  sanitary,  being  more  or  less  pervious 
and  absorbent.  Paved  floors  liave  the  advantage  of  durability 
and  are  most  sanitary,  being  impei-vious  and  easily  drained,  but 
they  are  hard  to  stand  upon,  slippery,  noisy,  cold  to  lie  upon,  and 
generally  undesirable  from  the  horse's  point  of  view.  Notwith- 
standing, they  are  well-nigh  indispensable  in  large  city  stables, 
and  a  satisfactory  compromise,  in  consideration  of  the  horse's 
personal  preference  in  the  matter,  is  made  by  supplying  a  well- 
fitted  rack.     This  is  made  of  slats  running  lengthwise  of  the 

*  Ware,  "  First  Hand  Bits  of  Stable  Lore." 


250  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

stall,  fixed  at  such  distance  apart  as  to  admit  but  not  catch  the 
narrow  calks  or  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  broad  calks,  depending 
upon  the  type  of  horse  to  be  stalled,  the  entire  rack  to  be  readily 
taken  out,  permitting  thorough  cleaning  of  the  floor  beneath. 
These  racks,  of  course,  wear  out,  but  are  more  easily  replaced 
than  a  floor,  and  while  the  horse  stands  on  wood  the  sanitary 
features  of  the  paved  floor  are  procured.  Concrete,  rough  cast 
or  corrugated,  vitrified  or  cork  brick,  are  the  common  paving 
materials. 

Concrete  floors  may  be  made  comparatively  dry  and  wann 
by  insulating  the  top  coat  from  the  rough  bottom  Avith  a  layer 
of  tar  paper  or  two  coats  of  tar  paint.  Cork  brick  has  proven 
satisfactory  in  dairy  stables  but  has  not  yet  been  much  used 
under  horses. 

Drainage. — The  drainage  of  stalls  may  be  by  open  or  cov- 
ered drains.  Common  experience  is  in  favor  of  the  open  drain, 
the  covered  drain  becoming  stopped  up  frequently  in  spite  of 
gratings  and  traps  to  prevent  such  occurrences.  Drains  consist 
of  either  a  central  or.  two  lateral  troughs,  running  either  from 
about  half  way  to  the  front  of  the  stall,  or  the  centre  of  the  box, 
to  a  main  drain  passing  in  the  rear  of  the  stalls.  Two  lateral 
drains  at  the  sides  of  the  stall  interfere  less  with  the  horse  stand- 
ing or  getting  up  and  do\Aai  than  does  the  central  drain.  The  stall 
floors  should  incline  slightly  toward  the  drain  but  not  enough 
to  unbalance  the  standing  position  of  the  horse.  Undrained 
stalls,  in  which  absorbent  litter  is  depended  upon  for  the  removal 
of  the  liquid  manure,  are  most  practicable  for  the  average  coun- 
try stable  and  can  be  kept  sanitary  provided  an  abundance  of 
litter  is  used.  The  high  cost  of  bedding  materials  and  the 
objectionable  features  of  accumulated  manure,  together  with 
the  available  sewer  connections  and  possibility  of  frequent  flush- 
ing, render  the  drained  stable  much  more  desirable  in  the  city. 

Litter  for  Bedding. — Bedding  is  used  for  several  purposes : 
(1)  To  insure  comfort  to  the  horse,  thereby  inducing  him  to  lie 
down  and  save  his  feet  and  legs  as  much  as  possible ;  ( 2 )  to  keep 
the  horse  clean  and  free  from  stable  stain  ;  (3)  to  absorb  and  thvis 
facilitate  the  removal  of  liquid  manure ;  (4)  to  dilute  and  thus 


STABLES  251 

improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  manure  for  fertilizing 
purposes. 

Bedding  materials  consist  of  stra,ws,  sawdust,  shavings,  peat 
moss,  and,  in  the  country,  corn  stover  and  leaves.  The  durability 
of  the  straws  is  in  the  order  of  rye,  wheat  and  oat,  while  their 
absorbing  capacity  is  reversed.  Their  relative  values,  therefore, 
will  depend  upon  whether  or  not  they  are  to  be  used  in  drained 
stalls.  If  that  is  the  case  they  will  be  valued  in  the  order  named, 
but  with  an  abundance  of  straw,  and  value  attached  to  the 
manure,  tliey  would  have  an  inverted  valuation  in  the  undrained 
stable,  where  the  absorption  by  the  bedding  is  depended  upon 
for  the  removal  of  the  liquid  manure.  The  chaffy  nature  of  oat 
straw  would  make  it  objectionable  to  use  in  drained  stables.  The 
market  price  is  greatest  for  untangled  rye  straw,  which  is  espe- 
cially demanded  in  high-class  stables,  where  the  appearance  is 
much  enhanced  by  ^^  setting  fair''  the  bedding;  then  tangled 
rye,  wheat,  and  oat  in  the  order  named. 

Shavings  and  sawdust  have  the  advantages  of  economy  in 
most  locations,  a  cleanly  appearance  in  the  stable,  and  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  they  counteract  odors,  but  they  are  difficult  to  handle, 
rather  cold  to  lie  upon,  and  undesirable  in  the  manure  on  accou.nt 
of  their  dearth  of  plant  food.  Sawdust  holds  better  on  the  stall 
floor  but  it  is  not  so  easily  removed  from  the  horses'  coats  as  are 
shavings. 

Peat  moss  is  much  more  commonly  used  in  England  and 
Scotland  than  in  America.  It  is  imported  by  the  shipload  in 
large  bales,  chiefly  from  Holland  and  Germany,  and  is  there- 
fore cheapest  in  the  Eastern  cities.  It  has  the  advantage  of 
durability,  will  absorb  about  ten  times  its  volume  of  Avater, 
while  straw  absorbs  but  three,  prevents  stable  odor,  affords  a 
comfortable  bed  either  to  lie  or  to  stand  upon,  and  does  not  stain 
gray  horses,  a  property  which  alone  is  responsible  for  its  use  in 
many  large  stables.  Like  shavings  and  sawdust,  stalls  thus 
bedded  are  somewhat  difficult  to  muck  out.  Peat  moss  has  some 
fertilizing  value  and  is  therefore  not  objectionable  in  the  manure, 
as  are  shavings  and  sawdust.  If  available  at  a  price  of  about  $12 
per  ton  it  will  be  found  a  most  economical  and  satisfactory 
litter. 


252  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

Com  stover  must  be  either  cut  or  shredded  in  order  to  be 
conveniently  used  for  bedding.  It  is  customary  to  feed  a  gen- 
erous allowance  and  permit  what  is  not  consumed  to  go  under 
the  horses  for  bedding. 

Feed  boxes  sliuuld  be  easily  taken  out  in  order  that  they  may 
be  frequently  cleansed  and  kept  sweet.  Vai'ious  schemes  have 
been  devised  for  the  purjDOse  of  preventing  too  rapid  bolting  of 
feed  and  throwing  it  out.  Aside  from  the  i)atent  slow  fee<l- 
ing  contrivances,  a  broad,  flat-bottomed  box  which  insures  the 
feed  being  spread  in  a  tliin  layer,  or  a  few  good-sized  cobble- 
stones placed  in  the  ordinary  box  will  serve  to  prevent  hogging, 
while  a  flange  about  the  rim  of  the  feed  box  will  help  retain  the 
grain,  altliough  increasing  the  difficulty  of  removing  what  feed 
is  left,  in  case  it  may  be  necessary  to  do  so. 

Mangers  for  the  roughage  should  not  be  placed  higher  than 
the  level  of  the  feed  box  and  should  be  provided  with  either 
cross  slats  or  some  other  means  to  prevent  the  hay  being  thrown 
out.  They  should  be  open  at  the  bottom  in  order  that  they  may 
be  kept  clean  from  dirt,  chaff,  and  all  trash.  It  is  recommended 
by  some  that  feeding  be  done  from  the  floor,  inasmuch  as  that 
is  the  natural  position  of  the  grazing  horse.  It  has  the  advan- 
tage of  cheapening  construction  and  economizing  stall  space,  as 
vv^oll  as  enhancing  the  security  of  the  horse  in  the  stable.  It 
requires  a  careful  allotment  of  hay,  however,  as  what  is  not 
readily  consumed  will  be  wasted,  and  with  those  horses  which 
have  acquired  the  habit  of  pawing  whatever  is  in  front  of  them 
back  under  their  hind  feet  it  will  prove  a  wasteful  practice. 

Ties. — A  horse  should  be  tied  securely  in  his  stall  for  the 
protection  of  lx>th  himself  and  others  in  the  stable,  but  the  method 
of  tying  should  be  such  as  to  enable  him  to  rest  comfortably,  yet 
w^ithout  danger  of  becoming  either  cast  or  entangled  in  the  halter 
shank.  Comfort  requires  that  a  horse  be  permitted  to  lay  his 
head  flat  on  the  floor,  yet  much  more  length  than  this  ^vill  enable 
him  to  get  a  foot  over  the  halter.  Both  comfort  and  safety  are 
met  by  attaching  a  weight  to  the  end  of  the  halter  shank  equiva- 
lent to  the  weight  of  the  shank  itself,  allowing  the  shank  to  slip 
through  either  a  ring  or  a  hole  in  the  manger  without  being  tied. 
The  weight  keeps  the  halter  shank  taut  to  the  extent  of  not  being 


STABLES 


253 


slack  in  ^^iiatever  position  the  horse's  head  may  be  Tvithout  ex- 
erting any  drag  on  the  head.  Another  method  is  to  tie  a  short 
halter  shank  to  a  ring  which  travels  a  perpendicular  rod,  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  some  cow  ties  are  made.  The  length 
and  adjustment  of  both  rod  and  halter  shank  should  be  such  a^ 
to  allow  the  horse  ample  freedom,  either  standing  or  lying  down, 
yet  never  permitting  any  slack  in  the  strap.  Halter  shanks, 
whether  rope,  strap,  or  chain,  should  be  attached  to  the  head 
stall  by  a  snap  to  insure  certain  and  prompt  release  of  the  horse 
in  case  of  emergency. 

Passageways  both  behind  and  between  stalls  should  bo  of 
ample  ^ddth,  and  if  paved  should  be  roughed  in  some  manner 
to  prevent  slipping.  A  smoothly  finished  concrete  or  asphalt 
pavement  mav  be  made  safe  by  a  thin  coating  of  shai-p  sand  re- 
plenished daily,  or,  better  yet,  the  concrete  may  be  corrugated  or 
rough  surfaced,  even  to  the  extent  of  a  layer  of  fine  crushed  stone 
to  give  a  foothold.  This  last,  however,  is  more  difficult  to  sweep 
and  clean.  If  bricks  are  used  they  should  be  laid  on  an  angle 
and  be  so  bevelled  and  pointed  as  to  afford  a  catch  for  the  shoe. 

Doors  should  be  so  located  as  to  be  most  convenient  yet  least 
productive  of  drafts  in  the  stable.  Single  doors  should  not  be 
less  than  four  feet  in  width  and  double  doors  eight  feet.  The 
usual  height  is  eight  feet.  Kolling  doors  are  preferable  to  hinged 
doors,  especially  in  the  interior  of  the  stable  as  on  box  stalls,  for 
the  reason  that'^they  are  always  out  of  the  way,  while  a  partially 
open  hinged  door  may  project  into  a  passage  in  such  a  way  as  to 
seriouslv  injure  a  horse. 

Windows  should  be  ample  in  size  and  number  to  provide 
requisite  light  and  ventilation.  They  should  be  placed  high 
enough  over  the  horses'  heads  to  protect  their  eyes  from  the  direct 
lio-ht^of  the  sun.  In  the  simpler  systems  of  ventilation,  the 
wtndows  serve  for  inlets,  and  should  for  that  purpose  be  so  con- 
structed as  to  drop  inward  from  the  top,  thus  directing  the  air 
toward  the  ceiling  where  it  becomes  diffused  and  gradually 
settles  to  the  floor  of  the  stable.  The  sides  of  the  windows  should 
be  protected  bv  fenders,  which  prevent  side  and  downward  drafts. 
The  opening  should  be  regulated  in  accordance  with  the  velocity 


254  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

of  the  wind.  Outlets  are  usually  provided  at  the  ridge  pole, 
by  direct  flues  from  below  or  by  an  open  ceiling. 

The  King  system  of  ventilation  is  to  be  recommended  when- 
ever its  installation  is  i^racticable.  It  is  made  up  of  two  kinds  of 
flues:  (1)  Those  for  intake  of  fresh  air,  and  (2)  those  for  the 
outtake  of  foul  air.  The  intake  flues  start  at  a  point  two  feet  or 
more  above  the  ground  outside  and  extend  to  the  inside  near  the 
ceiling.  The  outtake  flues  start  near  the  floor  of  the  barn  and  ex- 
tend above  the  highest  point  of  the  roof. 

Fresh  Air  Requirements. — The  fresh  air  and  cubic  space 
requirements  per  horse  should  be  considered  in  the  constmction 
of  stables  and  the  provision  of  windows.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  a  horse  of  average  size  requires  approximately  15,000  cubic 
feet  of  fresh  air  per  hour,  and  this  is  the  ideal  aimed  at  in  the 
English  Army.  Col.  Fred  Smith  in  his  book  on  Veterinary  Hy- 
giene describes  a  simple  method  of  arriving  at  the  horse^s  fresh  air 
requirements  and  of  determining  whether  or  not  these  require- 
ments are  being  met  He  bases  his  conclusions  on  the  fact  that 
the  horse  inspires  about  100  cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour  while  in 
the  stable,  and  his  expirations  completely  vitiate  air,  to  the  ex- 
tent that  it  would  not  sustain  the  life  of  a  mouse,  at  the  rate  of 
twenty-five  cubic  feet  per  hour.  This  air  requires  a  dilution  of 
150  times  in  order  not  to  be  injurious  when  rebreathed  as  it 
would  be  in  the  ordinary  stable.  De  Chaumont's  test  makes  it 
very  simple  to  detect  an  injurious  amount  of  respiratory  impurity 
in  the  air.  By  actual  analysis  it  has  been  determined  that  the 
sense  of  smell  upon  first  entering  the  stable  from  the  outside  may 
be  relied  upon,  not  only  to  detect  but  to  gauge  the  amount  of  res- 
piratory impurities  present.  An  amount  up  to  .2  per  thousand 
may  be  present  without  being  perceptible;  .4  per  thousand  gives 
to  the  air  a  smell  suggested  by  the  term  "  rather  close  " :  .67  per 
thousand  "  close  "  ;  .9  per  thousand  "  very  close — offensive." 
Therefore,  it  is  concluded  that  sufficient  vitiation  to  be  detected 
by  smell  renders  the  air  unfit  to  be  breathed  and  .2  per  thousand 
has  been  taken  as  a  standard  of  requirement.     By  the  equation 

Amount  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled  per  hour      (  ^^^t-  ^j^  required,  I5,OJ)0 

-— ; — — — ; — I f-. =  \      cubic  feet  per  hour  is  de- 

The  permissible  organic  impunties  (     termined  to  be  necessary. 


STABLES 


255 


The  cubic  air  space  of  the  stable  should  be  ample  to  insure 
to  each  horse  the  requisite  15,000  cubic  feet  per  hour  without 
such  frequent  changes  of  the  volume  of  air  as  to  cause  drafts  or 
a  continuous  fluctuation  of  temperature.  Sixteen  hundred  cubic 
feet  per  head,  requiring  a  complete  change  in  the  volume  of  air 
nine  and  one-half  times  per  hour  in  order  to  furnish  15,000 
cubic  feet  per  head  per  hour,  is  the  ideal  aimed  at  in  the  design- 
ing of  the  English  Army  stable.  Changing  the  air  so  frequently 
keeps  the  stable  decidedly  fresh  and  renders  a  horse  more  fit  for 
sei-vice  than  for  show.  About  one  cubic  foot  per  pound  of 
weight  is  the  usual  rule  in  figuring  the  air  space  of  the  stable. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  nearer  the  tempera- 
ture and  the  atmosphere  of  the  stable  approaches  that  outside, 
the  more  capable  the  horse  is  of  hard  and  fast  work. 

The  size  of  the  inlet  or  window  necessary  to  admit  the  re- 
quired amount  of  air  is  computed  from  the  following  table : 


Daiaj 

or  Calculating  Size  of  Inlet 

Description  of  wind 

Mean  velocity  in  milea 
per  hour 

Size  of  inlet  to  admit 

15,000  cubic  feet  of 

air  per  hour 

Calm 

Light  air 

3 

8 

13 

23 

28 

Sq.  ft. 

1 

04 

Light  breeze  

0  2 

Moderate  breeze 

Fresh  breeze 

0.12 
0.12 

Rule  for  Computing. — Multiply  the  number  of  animals  to  be 
supplied  with  air  by  tlie  size  of  the  inlet  corresponding  to  the 
estimated  velocity  of  the  wind.  This  divided  by  the  number  of 
ventilators  on  the  inlet  side  of  the  building  gives  the  size  in 
square  feet  which  each  ventilatx)r  or  window  should  be  opened. 
Outlets  should  have  the  same  opening  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
movement  of  the  air. 

Fresh  Air  for  Horses. — On  account  of  the  fact  that  most 
horses  work  regularly  in  the  open  air,  the  principles  of  ventila- 
tion are  violated  with  greater  impunity  in  their  case  than  in  the 


256 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


case  of  dairy  cows.  Existence  in  some  citj  subway  stables  would 
be  impossible  were  it  not  that  the  horses  spend  most  of  their  time 
outside.  The  care  of  the  stable  and  stable  drainage  are  both 
factors  concerned  with  fresh  air,  and  j^roperly  done  they  remove 
an  important  source  of  contamination  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  interior  of  the  stable  should  be  made  as  free  from 
])rojecti()ns  and  possible  sources  of  injury  to  the  horses  as  may 
1)0.     All  hardware  should  be  countersunk;  harness  hooks  put 


Fig.   12U. 


>Tk  horse  stable,  .showing  the  main  allt 
arrangement. 


above  the  level  of  the  horses'  heads ;  dung  forks,  shovels,  and  all 
other  implements  put  safely  away;  manure  pits  and  trap  doors 
thoroughly  ])rotected. 

Wagon  and  harness  rooms  should  be  completely  shut  off 
from  the  stable  and  so  situated  as  to  be  convenient  for  the  har- 
nessing and  putting- to  of  the  horses.  In  fact,  the  whole  stable 
arrangement  should  be  such  that  the  turning  out  of  the  equipage, 
whether  for  business  or  pleasure,  may  be  accomplished  by  pro- 
gressive steps,  Avith  no  retracing,  from  the  grooming  floor  to 
the  outside  door. 


STABLES 


257 


Fig.   130.— a  in..(K.l  w(,rk  horse  stable,  .shuwiiig  width  of  stalls,  corrugated  concrete  floors, 
wooden  racks  in  stall  floors,  width  of  alleys,  drains  and  ventilating  flues. 


f-  4.  J  ■  I'i-— '^^od^l^ork  horse  stable,  showing  length  oi  stalls,  open  partitions  and 
iront  doors,  the  latter  being  a  convenience  for  caretakers  and  obviating  the  danger  of  back- 
ing heavy  horses  on  shppery  floors. 

17 


258 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


The  assignment  of  stalls  should  be  made  with  a  view  of  pro- 
moting congenial  relationships  between  neighboring  horses  and 
avoiding  the   consequences   of   incompatibility.      Furthermore, 


■L    '>  ~      D^o      n^»      n  n  •*      n  n 


76.0O 

c.c.r. 


6   <    ., 
06 


r-S^ 


e.B. 
3"  k  5' 


£fi 


EB 


UncoverecL  ccretm    tr&.j> 


Folding  Blarikei  JfoVer 


.fa 

3"  A  S 


EB 


Fig.   132. — Plan  and  specifications  for  a  small  work  horse  stable  with  open  front  stalls. 


Fig.  133. — Floor  plan  and  specifications  for  a  convenient,  comfortable,  and  sanitary 

city  stable. 

in  large  work  stables,  it  is  well  to  stable  togetlier  those  horses 
which  work  during  the  same  hours.  This  enables  them  to  rest 
better,  with  less  disturbance  while  in  the  stable  (Figs.  129,  130, 
131,  132,  and  133). 


STABLES  259 


STABLE    MA^-AGEMENT 


Grooming  is  essential  to  the  health  and  general  appearance 
of  the  horse.  Systems  of  grooming  vary  from  the  simple  use  of 
the  hare  hand  and  arm,  as  practiced  hy  the  Indians,  to  the  most 
thorough  and  vigorous  employment  of  a  variety  of  utensils. 
The  more  highly  hred,  finer  coated  horses  require  more  delicate 
treatment  than  the  heavier  coated  and  phlegmatic  work  horses. 
Utensils  in  common  use  are  the  metal  curry-comb,  bristle  body- 
bnisli,  com  brush,  rub  rag,  sponge,  wisp,  and  hoof  pick.  All 
grooming  should  be  thorough  but  gentle,  with  due  consideration 
for  the  sensibilities  of  the  horse.  Dandimff  consists  of  shed 
particles  of  skin,  Avaste  products  of  metabolism,  fat,  and  some 
salt.     It  complete  removal  is  the  primary  object  of  grooming. 

The  first  step  usually  is  the  use  of  the  curry-comb  the  reverse 
way  of  the  hair  for  the  removal  of  dandruff  and  diy. stable  dirt, 
if  there  be  any.  The  curry-comb  should  never  be  used  about  the 
head  nor  below  the  knees  and  hocks,  should  be  dull  (new  ones 
preferably  filed  dull),  and  used  with  the  greatest  care.  It  is 
not  permitted  in  many  well-regulated  stables,  the  wisp  of  straw 
and  the  com  brush  accomplishing  the  same  purpose.  The  bristle 
or  body  brush  is  used  the  right  way  of  the  hair  tO'  remove  what 
the  curry-comb  or  wisp  has  brought  to  the  surface,  also  to  brush 
the  head  and  legs.  The  corn  brush  is  used  chiefly  on  mane  and 
tail,  although  the  latter  may  require  additional  picking  by  hand. 
The  use  of  a  comb,  except  on  docked  tails  and  pulled  manes,  is 
not  desirable.  The  rub  rag,  used  the  right  way  of  the  hair  unless 
in  cooling  out  hot  horses,  puts  the  final  finish  on  the  coat. 

In  show  and  race  horses  the  rubbing  may  amount  to  a  most 
vigorous  massage.  The  eyes,  muzzle,  and  region  under  the  tail 
should  be  sponged  off ;  also  the  feet,  after  having  been  picked  out. 
AMiite  points  may  be  washed  if  necessary.  Motor  brushes  and 
vacuum  cleaners  have  not  as  yet  been  very  generally  adopted, 
even  in  large  stables  (Fig.  134). 

Washing. — The  frequent  application  of  soap  and  water  de 
stroys  the  lustre  of  a  horse's  coat,  beside  rendering  him  espe- 
ciallv  liable  to  chill  if  not  thoroughly  dried  out.     Except  in  the 


260  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

case  of  jiure  white  horses  or  in  hot  weather,  washing  is  not  to  be 
commended,  but  is  too  frequently  resorted  to  by  indolent  care- 
takers. There  is  really  nothing  gained  in  either  time  or  labor, 
as  it  is  as  difficult  to  properly  wash  and  dry  a  horse  as  to  groom 
him  completely. 


Fig.  134. — A  vacuum  grooming  machine  in  operation.  A  vacuum  is  maintained  in 
the  pipes  which  draws  the  dirt  out  of  the  hair  and  conveys  it  to  a  receptacle  where  it  collects 
and  can  be  removed. 

Care  of  the  Legs. — Horses  of  a  lymphatic  temperament,  as 
most  business  horses  are,  working  continuously  in  all  kinds  of 
going,  require  especial  attention  to  keep  them  right  in  their  legs. 
A  proper  balance  between  feed  and  exercise  is  the  first  consid- 
eration in  keeping  legs  right.  Then  they  must  be  thoroughly 
groomed,  and  dry  grooming  keeps  the  skin  much  less  predis- 


STABLES  261 

posed  to  disorder.  So  does  the  presence  of  hair,  the  arrangement 
of  which,  about  the  fetlock,  naturally  turns  the  water  off  the  leg 
instead  of  iimning  it  down  into  the  heel  where  the  skin  is  most 
delicate.  The  most  intelligent  and  exj^erienced  managers  of 
city  work  horse  stables,  where  the  clipping  of  legs  in  the  winter 
lias  been  tried  out,  are  opposed  to  it  on  this  basis.  Once  the  skin 
becomes  affected,  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  the  hair  in  order 
to  reach  the  seat  of  the  trouble.  The  old  country  plan  of  rub- 
bing out  legs  with  considerable  feather  is  the  best  means  of  dry 
grooming  them.     Too  much  rough  brushing  may  be  irritating. 

Horses'  legs  should  not  be  washed  unless  thoroughly  dried. 
If  necessary  to  put  away  wet,  the  legs  may  be  loosely  bandaged 
to  prevent  chilling,  until  they  have  dried  out.  The  fetlocks, 
pasterns,  and  heels  may  be  protected  against  the  snow  brine 
common  on  city  streets,  and  other  irritating  influences,  by  smear- 
ing them  thoroughly  with  a  coating  of  linseed  oil  before  leaving 
the  stable. 

Care  of  the  Feet. — The  importance  of  having  a  horse  ^^  good 
on  the  ground,"  as  the  saying  goes,  is  generally  appreciated ;  but 
the  structure  of  the  foot  itself,  as  a  most  important  feature  of 
conformation,  is  not  always  well  understood.  Furthermore,  the 
necessity  for  keeping  horses  shod,  Avliich,  in  itself,  is  an  injuri- 
ous practice  at  best,  renders  consideration  of  tlie  principles  in- 
volved especially  essential. 

Shoeing. — The  foot  is  not  an  innnobile  block  to  which  a  shoe 
can  be  nailed,  but  is  capable  of  motion,  interference  with  which 
will  defeat  the  purpose  which  the  foot  is  most  ingeniously  de- 
signed to  serve,  namely,  the  relief  of  concussion.  Comi^are  the 
unshod  foot  of  the  colt  with  the  foot  .of  the  horse  that  has  been 
shod  in  the  ordinary  way,  for  a  number  of  years,  and  the  detri- 
mental influence  of  shoeing  will  be  apparent.  Xotice  the  smooth, 
worn  foot  surface  of  the  shoe  that  has  been  properly  applied  and 
the  extent  to  which  the  foot  expands  and  contracts,  laterally,  will 
be  indicated. 

Physiological  Movements  of  the  Foot. — This  is  what  happens 
when  the  foot  comes  to  the  ground  at  the  conclusion  of  the  stride : 
As  the  weight  drops  on  the  foot  the  fetlock  and  pastern  settle 
downward  and  backward,  the  internal  structures  of  the  foot  are 


262 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


borne  down  upon,  and  in  the  normal  unshod  foot  further  de- 
pression is  opposed  by  the  contract  of  the  frog  with  the  ground. 
The  structures  compressed  between  the  pedal  or  coffin  bone 
above  and  the  unyielding  ground  or  roadway  beneath  are  elastic, 
and  yield  in  the  line  of  least  resistance,   which  is  laterally. 


Fig.  134a.    Longitudinal  median  section  of  the  foot,  showing  the  internal  structure. 

Three  bones  form  its  osseous  base  and  permit  it  to  accomplisli  its  various  movements. 
These  are:  the  third  phalanx  or  pedal  bone  (a);  the  second  phalanx,  or  coronanj  bone  {b)\ 
finally,  the  navicular,  or  fniall  sesamoid  bone  (r),  situated  behind  the  preceding  and  comple- 
menting the  articulation  which  the  other  two  form. 

Short,  strong  ligaments  consolidate  the  joint  on  the  sides,  while  two  wide  fibro-cartilagi- 
nous  plates,  lateral  cartilages  of  the  third  phalanx,  intimately  united  to  this  bone,  seem  like 
two  elastic  and  diverging  springs,  placed  on  the  outside  and  on  the  inside  of  this  bone,  to 
prevent  it  from  descending  or  rocking  too  suddenly  in  the  hoof  at  the  moment  when  the 
latter  strikes  the  ground. 

Two  strong,  expanded  tendons  terminate  upon  the  third  phalanx:  the  anterior  (d)  carries 
it  into  extension;  the  posterior  (e)  permits,  on  the  contrary,  the  flexion  of  this  bone  upon 
the  OS  coronae.  It  glides  over  the  inferior  face  of  the  navicular  bone  by  means  of  a  synovial 
sheath  designated  under  the  name  small  sesamoid  sheath  (better  called  the  naiictdar  sheath). 

Finally,  a  voluminous  fibro-elastic  cushion  (?/),  called  the  plantar  cushion,  bifurcated 
behind  and  pointed  in  front,  is  placed  under  the  flexor  tendon,  to  which  it  serves  as  a  flexible 
bufl'er  when  the  foot  has  reached  the  ground.  All  pressure  upon  the  hoof  from  below  up- 
ward tends  to  depress  it  and  force  it  against  the  lateral  parts,  where  it  is  maintained  by  the 
two  elastic  cartilages  indicated  above.     (Gonbaux  and  Barrier.) 

This  sidewise  expansion  of  the  internal  structures  of  the  foot 
presses  the  bars  and  lateral  cartilages  outward,  and  with  them 
the  wall  at  the  quarter,  thus  increasing  the  transverse  diameter 
of  the  foot  from  one-fiftieth  to  one-twelfth  of  an  inch.  As  this 
expansion  is  most  marked  in  the  back  half  of  the  foot,  there  is 
a  corresiDondino^  narrowing  of  the  hoof  head  in  front.  Fig.  134a. 
Interference,  by  shoeing  or  otherwise,  with  this  lateral  ex- 


STABLES 


263 


pansion  of  the  quarters,  not  only  causes  the  full  force  of  the  con- 
cussion incident  to  the  contact  of  the  foot  with  the  ground  to  bo 
felt,  but  induces  a  cramped,  stilty  stride,  as  a  result  of  the 
horse's  effort  to  come  down  easily  and  thus  spare  himself  the 
pain  of  concussion.  It  is  a.  condition  analogous  to  that  of  a  man 
with  a  tight  shoe,  which  pinches  as  the  weight  is  borne  on  it. 

The  destruction  of  the  elasticity  of  the  lateral  cartilages  by 
ossification,  in  the  formation  of  side  bones,  has  the  same  effect, 
marked  both  in  the  stride  and  in  the  altered  form  of  the  foot, 
the  quarters  becoming  more  narrow  and  straight. 


Fig.  135. — An  untrimmed 
hoof  with  an  excess  of  horn 
(a)  at  the  toe  which  breaks 
the  foot  axis  backward. 


Fig.  136. — An  untrimmed 
hoof  with  an  excess  of  horn 
(b)  at  the  heel,  which  breaks 
the  foot  axis  forward. 


Fig.  137.— Hoof  dressed 
and  foot  axis  straightened 
by  removing  excess  of  horn 
below  dotted  lines  in  the 
two  preceding  illustrations. 


Proper  shoeing  consists,  first,  in  so  dressing  the  foot  that  the 
removal  of  surplus  horn  does  not  destroy  the  balance  of  the  foot, 
but  leaves  it  with  its  axis  unbroken  either  up  or  down,  in  or  out, 
tlius  insuring  an  even  distribution  of  weight  and  wear  on  the 
joints  above  (T'igs.  135,  136  and  137).  Only  such  horn  should 
be  removed  from  the  sole  or  frog  as  is  loose;  the  bars,  natural 
braces  to  prevent  contraction,  should  not  be  cut  through,  the 
heels  "  opened  up,"  nor  the  sole  concaved.  The  shoe  must  be 
uiade  to  fit  the  foot,  not  the  converse,  its  upper  surface  being 
perfectly  level  and  smooth  to  favor  the  sliding  of  the  wall  in 
the  outward  expansion  of  the  quarters,  not  bevelled  to  turn  the 
heels  out ;  the  nails  should  be  placed  far  enough  foi-ward  to  leave 
the  back  of  the  foot  free  to  expand  on  the  branches  of  the  shoe. 
Hot  fitting,  properly  done,  insures  a  better  fit  than  is  possible 
when  the  shoe  is  fitted  cold,  and  is  not  injurious  to  the  horn ;  in 
fact,  there  is  some  advantage  in  searing  over  the  ends  of  the 
horn  tubules. 

Common  styles  of  shoes  are  the  plain  open  shoe,  the  bar 


264  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

shoe,  designed  for  the  purpose  of  giving  frog  pressure  or  pro- 
tecting weak  heels,  tips,  and  pads. 

Hoof  Dressings. — The  boot  blacking  idea  applied  to  the 
feet  of  horses  is  inexcusable.  No  dressing  is  so  attractive  as  the 
natural  horn,  perfectly  clean.  If  it  is  desired  to  prevent  the 
drying  out  of  the  horn  after  the  removal  of  the  natural  varnish 
in  the  operation  of  shoeing,  neatsfoot  oil  without  the  customary 
lampblack  does  not  disguise  but  rather  improves  the  natural 
appearance  of  the  foot. 

Clipping. — The  removal  of  the  hair  consists  of  trimming  and 
incomplete  or  complete  clipping. 

Trimming  is  the  removal  of  the  hair  from  certain  parts  only, 
as  the  foretop,  fetlocks,  or  ears.     Trimming  is  largely  a  matter- 
of  fashion. 

Fashion  in  Horses. — The  rule  of  fashion  is  not  confined  to 
the  boxes  about  the  arena  of  the  horse  show;  it  prevails  also  in 
the  loose  boxes  adjoining  the  paddock.  In  compliance  with  the 
dictates  of  fashion  heavy  harness  and  walk-trot-canter  saddle 
horses  are  docked,  their  manes  pulled,  but  foretops  left.  By  the 
same  authority,  light  harness  and  gaited  saddle  horses  carry  full 
manes  and  tails ;  while  the  former  have  foretops  removed,  as 
a  rule,  the  latter  have  their  tails  artificially  set  and  have  been 
known  to  wear  "  wigs."  Hunters  and  polo  mounts  must  submit 
to  a  hogging  of  manes  and  foretops,  while  the  tails  nowadays 
are  suifcred  to  remain  full  length,  except  for  a  square  blocking 
of  the  end,  perhaps,  while  the  bulk  of  the  tail  is  reduced  by  pluck- 
ing the  hair  from  the  sides  of  the  dock. 

Drafters  are  docked  but  the  hair  is  not  trimmed.  In  the 
show  ring  their  manes  are  plaited  *  or  rolled  f  and  tails  tied  and 
decorated.:}:  The  docked  tail  of  the  harness  and  saddle  horsv 
may  be  trimmed  short  like  a  brush,  or  have  the  hair  parted, 
breaking  straight  down  when  the  tail  is  set,  with  the  ends  evenly 
trimmed  off,  or  the  hair  may  be  left  untrimmed,  as  in  French 
tails ;  the  second  method  is  most  popular  in  this  country. 

All  "  light-legged  "  horses  have  the  feather  and  fetlocks  re- 

*  Lisher,  Breeders'  Gazette,  March   11,   1915. 

f  Dinsmore,  Breeders'  Gazette,  September  24,  1913. 

%  McChord;  Montana  Stallion  Registration  Board,  Circular  No.  4. 


STABLES  265 

moved  to  give  a  trim  appearance,  while  some  feather  at  least  is 
desirable  on  the  draft  horse,  to  augment  the  appearance  of  bone, 
and  even  mild  blisters  may  be  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of 
stimulating  its  growth. 

Business  horses  may  have  foretops  trimmed  and  tails  blocked 
as  a  matter  of  convenience.  In  stables  of  100  horses,  for  in- 
stance, the  additional  time  required  in  doing  up  and  brushing 
out  a  long  tail  in  bad  weather  is  a  considerable  item  in  labor. 

Partial  clipping  consists  in  removing  the  hair  from  the  legs 
but  not  from  the  body,  as  is  frequently  done  with  business  and 
road  horses;  or  the  reverse,  as  is  customary  with  hunters, 
the  hair  being  left  on  the  legs  for  the  protection  it  affords  in  the 
hunting  held. 

Complete  clipping  is  justifiable  and  even  necessary  under 
certain  conditions.  The  horse  naturally  grows  a  heavy  protec- 
tive coat  of  hair  in  the  fall  which  would  be  of  the  gi'catest  service 
to  him  under  his  original  natural  conditions.  However,  the 
artificial  conditions  under  which  the  average  horse  lives  and 
works  render  an  excessively  heavy  coat  objectionable.  The  horse 
thus  protected  sweats  unduly  at  either  ordinary  or  fast  work,  is 
generally  enervated  and  his  system  is  relaxed,  thereby  rendering 
him  especially  liable  to  contract  colds.  Furthermore,  it  is  difii- 
cult  and  sometimes  impossible  to  completely  dry  him  after  a 
day's  work.  The  removal  of  such  a  coat  early  enough  in  the  fall 
so  that  a  light,  protective  coat  may  yet  be  grown  before  severe 
weather  is  encountered,  with  care  that  •  artificial  protection  is 
always  afforded,  will  render  the  horse  more  fit  for  work.  Unless 
a  horse  is  afflicted  with  an  exceptionally  heavy  coat,  and  cer- 
tainly not  unless  he  will  be  provided  with  ample  clothing  at  all 
times  when  not  at  work,  he  should  not  be  clipped. 

Clipping  is  also  resorted  to  in  the  spring  after  the  shedding 
process  has  begim,  but  before  the  new  coat  has  started  to  grow 
out,  to  obviate  the  disagreeable  features  of  the  shedding  coat, 
especially  in  the  case  of  gray  horses.  Here,  too,  the  substitu- 
tion of  blankets  for  the  natural  coat  is  required. 

Clothing  consists  of  blankets  of  various  weights,  hoods,  and 
bandages.  It  serves  to  protect  from  cold,  flies,  and  dii*t.  Show 
horses  are  heavily  blanketed  and  covered  for  the  purpose  of 


266  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

keeping  down  their  coats,  althongli  some  fitters  of  draft  horses 
secure  the  highest  bloom  without  blanlvcts.  All  blankets  should 
fit  comfoi-tably,  have  their  girth  adjusted,  and  be  put  on  in  such 
a  Avaj"  as  to  leave  the  hair  smooth  beneath  them. 

The  hlanhet  is  usually  folded  once  each  way,  the  cross  fold 
being  made  first,  then  caught  up  so  as  to  double  lengthwise.  The 
blanket  should  be  taken  up  in  such  manner  as  to  unfold  in  the 
reverse  order  from  that  in  which  it  was  folded  up.  If  this  is 
done  the  longitudinal  fold  will  open  as  it  is  thrown  over  the  horse, 
and  if  carried  well  over  his  withers,  with  the  open  edges  of  the 
transverse  fold  forward,  the  last  step  in  the  unfolding  will  bring 
the  blanlvct  over  the  horse's  loins  and  croup,  drawing  it  in  the 
direction  of  the  hair.  To  remove,  it  should  be  folded  trans- 
versely backward,  then  caught  up  where  the  lengthwise  fold  is 
to  come  {ind  drawn  off  backwards  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave 
the  hair  smooth. 

Hoods  are  used  m  conjunction  with  blankets  on  race  and  show 
horses  to  cover  all  but  the  eyes,  ears,  and  muzzle.  It  is  impor- 
tant that  they  should  fit  well  about  the  eyes  and  ears. 

Bandages  are  used  either  to  protect  the  extremities  from  chill, 
in  which  case  they  are  rolled  loosely,  or  to  exert  gentle  pressure 
in  order  to  prevent  filling  of  the  subcutaneous  tissue,  commonly 
termed  stocking.  They  are  applied  by  starting  at  the  middle  of 
the  canon,  rolling  down  to  or  including  the  fetlock  joint,  then 
up  to  the  knee,  and  back  to  the  starting  point.  By  rolling  down- 
Avard  first  better  support  for  the  bandage  is  secured. 

Stable  Vices. — Wind  suching,  as  indicated  by  the  name,  is  a 
practice  in  which  the  horse  assumes  a  position  with  the  upper 
teeth  bearing  on  the  manger  or  other  projecting  object  and  pro- 
ceeds to  suck  wind  into  his  stomach,  accompanied  by  a  long- 
grunting  sound.    Wind  suckers  are  difficult  to  keep  in  condition. 

Crih-hiting  is  a  vice  in  which  the  edge  of  the  manger  or  any 
other  projection  is  gi-asped  between  the  teeth  and  gTadually  bitten 
away.  The  habit  results  in  a  characteristic  bevelling  of  the  front 
margins  of  the  teeth,  although  the  wear  of  a  rounded  iron  feed 
box  may  produce  much  the  same  appearance  of  the  teeth.  Wind 
sucking  and  crib-biting  are  usually  associated,  although  a  horse 
may  be  subject  to  one  and  not  the  other.     The  habit  is  not  con- 


STABLES  267 

fined  to  the  stable,  but  may  be  practiced  whenever  the  oppor- 
tunity offers.  Either  a  smoothly  finished  stall  in  which  there  is 
nothing  to  offer  a  toothhold  or  the  use  of  a  strap  fitted  closely 
enough  about  the  throat  to  compress  the  lar^Tix  when  pressure  is 
borne  on  the  teeth,  but  causing  the  horse  no  discomfort  when 
not  indulging  in  the  vice,  are  the  usual  means  of  preventing,  al- 
though not  curing,  the  habit. 

Weaving  is  a  rhythmical  shifting  of  the  weight  of  the  fore- 
hand from  one  forefoot  to  the  other  in  much  the  same  manner 
that  is  displayed  by  a  bear  in  captivity.  As  a  rule,  enforced 
idleness  is  an  active  cause.  It  has  been  suggested  that  horses 
tied  with  chain  halter  shanks  have  acquired  this  habit  in  order 
to  rattle  the  chains. 

KicMng. — Horses  kick  from  various  motives,  such  a  mali- 
ciousness, good  feeling,  or  wilful  attempts  to  injure  either  com- 
panions or  attendants.  A  gTcat  many  horses  which  never  mani- 
fest an  inclination  to  kick  elsewhere  acquire  the  habit  of  kicking 
in  the  stable.  Mares  are  more  frequently  wickers  than  geldings. 
Some  horses  kick  only  at  feeding  time,  thus  giving  vent  to  their 
impatience.  A  true  stable  kicker  appears  to  have  no  other  ex- 
cuse than  the  satisfaction  of  kicking;  for  such  horses  a  swing- 
ing bale  partition  is  recommended.  It  offers  little  resistance  to 
the  kick  and  for  that  reason  seems  to  destroy  the  desire.  Either 
hobbling  the  two  hind  feet  or  even  shackling  one  to  a  weight  is 
sometimes  resorted  to,  but  such  practices  are  attended  with  more 
serious  danger  than  the  original  offence. 

Some  horses  kick  only  in  the  dark,  and  the  presence  of  a  light 
in  the  stable  will  stop  them.  Some  are  provoked  to  kick  by  an 
especially  uncongenial  companion  in  the  next  stall.  Finally, 
horses  perfectly  well  behaved  in  the  stable  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances kick  from  sheer  spirit  and  energy  when  confined  for 
an  unusually  long  period. 

Tail  Biihhing. — The  presence  of  animal  parasites  or  neglect 
of  the  region  under  the  tail,  which  may  become  foul,  are  usually 
the  causes  of  the  first  offence  at  tail  rubbing.  Once  acquired, 
however,  the  practice  will  be  persisted  in,  even  after  the  correc- 
tion of  the  conditions  which  originally  induced  it.  If  thorough 
gi'ooming  will  not  stop  it,  the  horse  may  have  to  be  put  into  a 
specially  constructed  loose  box,  provided  either  with  a  fender 


268  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

arranged  at  such  a  level  that  the  horse  can  neither  rub  his  tail 
against  it  nor  touch  any  other  part  of  the  stall,  or,  better  yet,  a 
bevelled  wall  to  about  the  height  of  the  horse,  giving  it  an  upward 
and  outAvard  slope  from  the  floor  so  that  the  horse,  with  his  heel 
against  the  wall,  cannot  reach  it  to  rub,  at  the  height  of  his  tail. 
Shields  and  bandages  may  be  employed,  but  they  are  liable  to 
injure  the  hair  of  the  tail. 

Halter  Pulling. — Confirmed  halter  pullers  are  best  secured 
by  ropes  or  chains  snapped  across  behind  them.  The  habit  may 
be  broken  in  the  earlier  stages  by  a  slip  noose  about  the  flank, 
the  rope  being  carried  forward  between  the  front  legs,  through 
the  halter  ring,  and  then  fastened  securely.  After  pulling  back 
and  tightening  the  noose  about  the  flank  the  horse  will  usually 
take  gTeat  care  to  keep  the  rope  slack. 

Bad  Ilahits. — Horses  are  most  likely  to  fall  into  bad  habits 
from  want  of  something  else  to  do.  A  regular  daily  routine, 
therefore,  of  either  moderate  exercise  or  work,  and  a  ration  not 
too  stimulating,  are  the  best  safegiiards  against  their  acquisition. 
Furthermore,  much  can  be  done  to  make  the  stable  life  of  n 
horse  congenial  by  so  arranging  the  occupants  as  to  promote  good 
fellowship  and  avoid  incompatibility  among  them. 

REVIEW 

lid  well-an-anged  stables  provide? 
determines  the  dimensions  of  a  stable? 
,^ive  specifications  for  a  straight  stall. 
1 1     t.  How  large  should  a  box  stall  be  and  why? 
y^  5.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  paved  stall  floors? 
/^^ /  and  how  may  the  disadvantag-es  be  partially  overcome? 

'  G.  What  pui-poses  does  bedding  seinre?    Name  the  bedding  materials  iji 
common  use  and  the  relative  ments  of  each. 

7.  What  should  govern  the  number,  size,  and  placing  of  the  windows? 

8.  What  are  the  fresh  air  requirements  of  the  average  horse  and  what 
cubic  space  in  the  stable  is  necessary  to  meet  them  ? 

9.  What  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  assignment  of  stalls  in 
the  stabling  of  horses? 

10.  What  special  care  do  the  legs  of  horses  require? 

11.  Of  what  does  proper  shoeing  consist? 

12.  Discuss  the  advisability  of  clipping  horses. 

13.  How  does  fashion  govern  the  trimming  of  horses? 
34.  To  what  extent  do  horses  require  clothing? 
15*.  To  what  are  most  bad  habits,  which  hoises  acquire  in  the  stable,  due? 


CHAPTER  XVI 

EQUITATION 

Horsemanship  involves  the  mastery  of  mind  over  matter  in 
a  way,  but  the  control  of  the  matter  is  accomplished,  indirectly, 
by  the  mastery  of  a  superior  over  an  inferior  intellect.  A  horse's 
usefulness  is  in  proportion  to  the  completeness  of  his  subjuga- 
tion, and  the  more  we  know  of  his  mental  capacity  the  more 
completely  may  we  accomplish  his  subjugation. 

Control  of  the  Horse. — There  is  a  sentimental  opposition  to 
a  recital  of  the  horse's  mental  limitations  wliich  must  be  over- 
come, and  these  limitations  appreciated,  if  the  most  satisfactory 
service  is  to  be  had  from  him.  For  instance,  it  has  been  alleged 
that  the  horse  is  both  a  fool  and  a  coward,  and  while  these  un- 
complimentary terms  may  arouse  tlie  ire  of  horse  lovers,  and 
apparently  justly  so,  it  is  the  actual  possession  of  these  two 
traits,  perhaps  more  moderately  called  credulity  and  depend- 
ence, which  makes  it  possible  to  use  horses,  at  all,  with  safety  and 
satisfaction.  Our  whole  system  of  breaking,  schooling,  and 
driving  is  fundamentally  deceptive.  We  aim  to  give  the  horse  an 
exalted  notion  of  those  of  his  powers  which  are  useful  to  us  and 
at  the  same  time  create  the  idea  that  certain  others,  which  might 
prove  detrimental  to  our  purpose,  are  hardly  worthy  of  the 
horse's  consideration. 

The  all  too  common  notion  that  the  primary  essential  in  riding 
or  driving  is  to  be  able  to  ''  hold  liim  ''  leads  one  wide  of  the  mark 
in  the  rudiments  of  real  horsemanship.  Such  misconception  of 
facts  is  responsible  for  many  of  the  disasters  in  which  runaway 
horses  are  conspicuous.  !Most  convincing  proof  of  the  absurdity 
of  such  an  idea  is  the  faultless  performance  wliich  a  pair  of 
horses  may  put  up  in  a  class  for  ladies  to  drive,  while  the  same 
pair,  under  identical  conditions,  had  proved  unmanageable  for 
some  heavy-handed,  strong-armed  man  driver  in  a  preceding 
class.  Control,  or  at  least  the  only  system  which  renders  horses 
serviceably  safe,  is  of  the  mental,  not  muscular  activities  of  the 

269 


270  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

horse;  therefore,  the  proper  method  is  by  suggestion,  rather 
than  by  force.  The  execution  of  whatever  act  has  its  origin,  so 
far  as  the  horse  is  concerned,  in  his  brain,  not  his  bra^\Ti ;  so-  that 
is  the  logical  headquarters  through  which  to  transmit  instruc- 
tions. If  the  orders,  emanating  from  this  centre,  for  execution 
on  the  horse's  o^^^l  initiative,  should  happen  to  conflict  with  the 
physical  efforts  of  the  rider  or  driver,  tliere  is  liable  to  be  a 
rebellion  in  favor  of  the  horse,  who  regards  his  o^^tl  motive  as 
taking  precedence.  On  the  other  hand,  by  suggesting  to  the 
extent  of  bringing  the  horse  to  be  of  the'  same  mind  as  the  driver, 
there  can  be  no  conflict  of  orders,  and  most  harmonious  response 
on  the  part  of  the  horse  results. 

Compare  the  horse  which  has  been  educated  and  driven  by 
the  strong  arm  method,  which  requires  a  flogging  to  make-him  go, 
a  man's  weight  to  stop  him,  and  two  hands  to  pull  him.  round  a 
corner,  with  the  possibility  that  he  may  conceive  and  carry  out, 
at  any  time,  some  fool  notion  which  it  is  beyond  the  physical 
power  of  man  to  check,  with  the  thoroughly  schooled  horse  re- 
sponding to  the  light  yet  firm  and  strongly  suggestive  hand  of 
the  master  reinsman,  who  is  able  to  stop,  back,  start,  and  drive 
any  place,  without  a  word  or  even  a  perceptible  twist  of  the  wrist. 

Transmitting  the  Impulse  to  Act. — Xow  that  the  principle 
has  been  exposed,  the  system  may  be  outlined.  It  may  be  sum- 
marized in  a  consideration  of  hands  and  mouths.  These  are  the 
two  essential  factors  in  the  system  of  control,  ser\dng  alternately 
as  transmitters  and  receivers.  By  means  of  the  former,  either 
the  instructions  or  demands  in  the  mind  of  the  driver  are  con- 
veyed, by  the  medium  of  the  reins,  to  the  sensitive  structiu'es 
constituting  the  mouth  of  the  horse ;  to  be  forwarded  after  being 
received  through  the  sensory  nerve-trunks  to  the  brain  of  the 
horse;  thence  the  motor  nei'ves  convey  the  authorized  instruc- 
tions, as  it  were,  to  the  proper  parts  for  execution.  Wliat 
is  here  described  at  length  and  in  detail  is  aceomplished  in  a 
flash,  but  it  is  well  to  follow  the  actual  transmission  of  an  im- 
pulse in  order  to  appreciate  good  horsemanship. 

If  we  are  to  realize  the  most  prompt  and  delicate  response, 
the  horse  must  be  taken  and  kept  well  in  hand,  so  that,  telegraph- 
ically speaking,  the  line  of  transmission  from  hand  to  mouth 


EQUITATION  271 

may  be  instantly  called  into  requisition  witliont  waiting  to  get 
the  wires  up  and  connections  made.  Driving  with  a  careless  rein 
or  continually  jabbing  not  only  lets  tlie  driver  but  the  horse 
off  his  guard,  and  both  must  be  called  to  attention  by  taking  in 
hand,  before  communication  can  be  established.  Delays  of  even 
tliis  long  may  be  disastrous. 

Hands  of  the  right  sort  are  capable  of  such  delicate  manipu- 
lation as  to  constantly  feel  and  be  felt  by  the  mouth,  without 
maintaining  a  drag,  which  destroys  all  sensibility  in  both.  Such 
hands  convey  to  the  mouth  graduated  pressure,  from  the  lightest 
touch  to  the  most  compelling  pull  if  occasion  demands,  and  all 
with  a  firmness  that  is  convincing. 

Relation  of  Hands'  and  Mouth. — Mouths  are  the  product  of 
hands,  therefore  reciprocal  in  every  respect.  The  heavy,  rough 
hand  is  productive  of  a  hard,  unresponsive  mouth  and  destruc- 
tion of  any  other  kind ;  while  tlie  light,  impressionable  hand  can 
be>  relied  upon  to  create  or  preserve  a  most  sensitive  mouth.  There 
are  features  of  this- relationship  between  hands  and  mouths  which 
can  neither  be  described  nor  prescribed.  They  are  best  learned 
by  contact,  the  one  with  the  other ;  only  one  who  has  experienced 
the  intimacy  of  such  a  fine  system  of  communication  has  any 
conception  of  all  that  it  means.  With  many  the  possession  of 
good  hands  is  intuitive ;  they  can  neither  tell  why  or  how  they 
do  as  they  do;  others  are  heavy  handed  in  spite  of  tliemselves, 
and  are  fully  conscious  of  their  offence  and  its  attendant  bad 
result.  Of  course,  practice  has  much  to  do  Avith  this ;  one  accus- 
tomed to  driving  trotters  will  find  himself  in  trouble  with  the 
lighter  mouth  and  different  bitting  arrangement  of  the  actor; 
while  he  who  has  had  his  schooling  with  the  latter  class  of  liorses 
may  be  incapable  of  taking  a  strong  enough  hold  to  steady  and 
support  the  horse  at  speed. 

The  bit  is  the  instrument  by  means  of  which  communication 
between  the  hands  of  the  driver  and  the  mouth  of  the  horse  is  car- 
ried on.  An  impulse  arising  in  the  mind  of  the  driver  is  repre- 
sented in  a  manipulation  of  the  reins,  so  as  to  bring  the  pressure 
of  the  bit  on  the  structures  of  the  mouth  with  which  it  is  in 
contact  in  such  a  manner  as  to  suggest  a  corresponding  notion 
in  the  mind  of  the  horse,  which,  if  he  be  well  schooled,  he  imme- 


272 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


diately  executes.  In  the  reverse  order  the  horse  may  conceive 
the  idea  of  taking  some  steps  on  his  own  initiative,  the  premedi- 
tation of  which  will  be  felt  by  the  driver,  and  if  not  in  order 
he  flashes  back  counter  instructions.  This  is  the  advantage  of 
keeping  the  horse  always  in  hand. 

Intelligent  use  of  the  bit  requires  some  knowledge  of  the 


t'iG.  138. — Tongue  held  back  to  show  the  bara  (a)  of  the  mouth  upon  which  the  bit  bears. 

structures  of  the  mouth  involved  and  the  methods  by  which  the 
bit  operates. 

Following  are  the  structures  with  which  the  bit  is  more  or 
less  in  contact,  the  extent  and  nature  of  their  importance  depend- 
ing upon  the  style  of  tlie  .bit : 

1.  The  bars  of  the  mouth,  that  region  of  the  lower  jaw  be- 
tween the  incisor  and  molar  teeth  (Fig.  138). 

2.  The  tongue. 

3.  Angles  of  the  lips.  '•>•  *:i' 


EQUITATION  273 

4.  The  skill  of  the  groove  on  the  under  surface  of  tlie  lower 
jaw  just  in  front  of  the  union  of  its  branches. 

5.  The  lower  premolar  teeth,  in  some  instances. 
Classification  of  Bits. — Bits  may  be  classified  as  snaffle, 

curb,  and  special.  Snaffle  bits  consist  of  a  straight  or  jointed 
bar,  in  which  the  principle  involved  is  a  direct  pull  on  the 
mouth.  The  jointed  snaffle  (Fig.  139)  is  more  severe,  as  it  puts 
the  pressure  chiefly  on  the  bars  of  the  mouth,  while  the  plain 
snaffle  bears  equally  on  the  tongue,  which  has  a  cushioning 
effect. 

The  four-ring  snaffle  (Fig.  140)  is  doubly  sever©  on  account 
of  the  rings  at  the  ends  of  the  cheek  pieces  being  drawn  into  tlie 
mouth. 

Curb  bits  consist  of  a  plain  or  port  bar  furnished  with  a 
cheek  lever  or  shank  at  each  end,  in  place  of  snaffle  rings,  at  the 


Fio.    139. — The   jointed  Fig.  140. — The  four-ring 

snaffle  bit.  snaffle  bit. 

upper  ends  of  which  are  attached  the  chain  or  strap  which  bears 
in  the  groove  imder  the  lower  jaw,  wliile  near  the  lower  ex- 
tremity of  the  shank  the  reins  are  attached.  The  length  of  the 
shank  is  usually  one^third  above  the  mouth-piece  and  two-thirds 
below.  The  principle  involved  with  the  curb  is  one  of  leverage, 
the  restraint  of  the  u])per  arm  of  the  shank  by  the  curb  cliain 
or  strap  constituting  tlie  fulcrum,  the  power  being  aj^plied  on 
the  lower  arm  of  the  shank,  the  pasition  of  the  attachment  of 
the  reins  determining  the  leverage,  while  the  weight  is  the  mouth- 
piece of  the  bit  borne  by  the  bars  and  t>oiigue.  The  lower  the  loop 
into  which  the  reins  are  buckled,  the  stronger  the  leverage.  The 
possible  attachments  of  reins  are  the  plain  cheek,  the  half  cheek, 
the  first  or  second  loop.  The  bearing  of  the  curb  chain  is  in- 
tended to  be  sufficient  only  to  establish  the  leverage  of  the  shank 
by  holding  its  upper  extremities  stationary  and  establishing  a 
fulcnim.  The  severity  of  the  bit  may  be  increased,  however,  by 
18 


274 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


shortening  the  chain  or  strap  or  roughing  the  chain  by  twisting 
its  links.  The  action  of  the  curb  bit  is  also  made  more  severe  by 
the  U-shaped  mouth-piece  (Fig.  141)  which  ^^rovides  a  port,  into 
which  the  tongue  passes  when  the  bit  is  in  operation,  thus  throw- 
ing all  the  pressure  upon  the  bars  of  the  mouth.  Without  the 
port  in  the  bit,  the  pressure  is  cushioned  on  the  tongue  before 
being  borne  by  the  bars. 

The  plain  bit  is  usually  corrugated  on  one  side,  if  of  the 
reversible  Liverpool  pattern,  which  makes  it  a  little  more  severe 
than  if  the  smooth  side  is  used. 

There  are  four  standard  styles  of  curb  bits :  The  Liverpool, 
the  elbow,  the  Buxton,  and  the  Pelham.  The  Liverpool  (Fig. 
142)  has  a  straight  shank.     The  elbow  (Fig.  143)  has  an  angle 


Fig.   141.— Port  of  curb  bit. 


Fig.  142.— The 
Liverpool  bit. 


in  the  shank  to  prevent  the  horse  from  catching  it  in  his  lips  and 
preventing  the  operation  of  the  bit.  The  Buxton  (Fig.  144) 
has  a  long  S-shaped  shank  serving  the  same  purpose  as  the 
elbow,  the  lower  extremities  being  united  by  a  cross-bar  to  pre- 
vent their  becoming  caught  in  parts  of  the  harness.  The  Pelham 
(Fig.  145)  is  the  style  of  bit  commonly  used  in  riding  bridles. 

The  special  class  of  bits  includes  all  those  designed  to  meet 
extraordinary  requirements,  and  tliey  are  too  numerous  to  men- 
tion. The  majority  of  them  are  a  modification  or  corruption  of 
the  snaffle  type,  causing  such  distortion  of  the  horse's  mouth  as 
to  make  any  hold  of  the  bit  impossible.  Many  are  ruinous  to 
a  good  mouth  and  aggravating  to  a  bad  one. 

The  Bitless  Bridle. — There  has  recently  been  put  on  the 
market  a  bitless  bridle,  in  which  a  metal  nose  band  is  equipped 


EQUITATION 


275 


with,  rings  through  which  pass  the  ends  of  a  flexible  chin  strap 
into  which  the  reins  are  buckled.  The  idea  is  an  old  one,  sim- 
ilar bridles  having  long  been  in  common  use  in  Southern  Europe. 
For  some  horses  with  spoiled  mouths  this  bridle  might  give  good 
service,  but  with  it  the  nicer  responsiveness  of  a  good  mouth  to 
light  hands  is  impossible. 

The  proper  fit  amd  adjustment  of  a  bit  are  as  essential  to  the 
preservation  of  a  good  mouth  as  is  the  type  of  tlie  bit  itself.  It 
should  just  hang  easily  in  the  mouth,  wide  enough  not  to  pinch 
the  cheeks  and  low  enough  neitlier  to  stretch  the  angles  of  the 
mouth  nor  to  draw  the  cheeks  in  against  tlie  teeth.  Curb  bits 
should  be  lower  in  the  mouth,  as  a  rule,  than  the  snalile,  some 


Fig.    143.  — The 
elbow  bit. 


Fig.  144.— The 
Buxton  bit. 


Fig.  145.— The  Pelham  bit. 


being  constructed  so  that  the  bar  has  play  up  and  down  on  the 
shank  in  order  that  the  position  of  the  bit  may  be,  to  a  certain 
extent,  automatically  adjusted.  The  curb  chain  should  be  loose 
enough  to  admit  from  two  to  three  fingers  when  the  bit  hangs 
naturally  with  no  pressure  upon  it.  Then  the  bit  should  be  so 
adjusted  as  to  bring  the  chain  into  its  proper  groove.  If  too 
hig-li,  its  pressure  comes  on  the  sharp  margins  of  the  low^er  jaw 
with  injurious  effect. 

Accessories. — ChecJc  or  Bearmg  Rein. — The  overdraw  check, 
attached  either  to  a  small  check  bit,  a  chin  strap,  or  some  modi- 
fication of  either  or  both,  takes  the  bearing  directly  over  the 
pole  and  therefore  has  the  effect  of  extending  the  nose  and  at 
least  favoring,  if  not  suggesting,  an  extension  of  stride.    It  also 


276 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


prevents  the  compression  of  the  larynx  and  the  interference  with 
breathing,  which  come  from  sharp  flexion  of  the  neck  under  a 
pull.  The  overdraw  check  rein  accompanies  the  snaffle  bit, 
never  the  curb.  The  rein  should  not  be  attached  to  the  snaffle 
bit  itself,  as  its  bearing  will  displace  the  bit  in  the  horse's 
mouth,  tliereby  destroying  its  relation  with  the  structures  on 
which  it  is  supposed  to  bear. 

This  rein  is  used  on  speed  and  road  horses  Avhich  are  not 
reined  up  long  periods  at  a  time  and  are  driven  at  a  pace,  at 
which  they  go  against  the  bit  in  such  a  way  as  to  put  the  head 


Fig.  146. — The  side  check  or  bearing  rein  with  bridoon  bit. 


and  nock  in  a  position  in  which  the  bearing  of  the  check  rein  is 
very  nuicli  relieved.  The  check  bit  may  even  be  dropped  com- 
])letely  out  of  the  mouth,  although  the  rein  seemed  tight  when 
the  horse  was  standing. 

They  are  out  of  place  on  the  horse  which  is  required  either 
to  do  continuous  road  work,  to  pull  any  load,  especially  up  hill, 
or  to  stand  hitched  for  any  length  of  time.  Ignorant  or  thought- 
less use  of  the  overdraw  check  is  one  of  the  most  common  and 
severe  abuses  which  horses  have  to  endure. 

The  side  or  bearing  rein  is  attached  either  directly  to  the 


EQUITATION  277 

bridoon  bit  (Fig.  14:G)  or  to  a  pulley  bridoon  (Fig.  147).  It 
places  the  bearing  at  the  side  of  the  head,  having  the  effect  of 
drawing  the  chin  in  and  arching  the  neck  mthout  necessarily 
elevating  the  head  very  much.  This  rein  is  an  adjunct  to  the 
curb  bit,  co-operating  with  it  in  suggesting  a  shorter  but  higher 
stride  and  a  more  collected  way  of  going. 

Its  use  is  especially  indicated  in  the  case  of  horses  which 
yield  to  the  curb  with  the  entire  neck  instead  of  with  the  head 
only,  which  brings  the  chin  to  a  position  almost  against  tlie 
breast.  Severe  reining  of  this  character,  especially  in  short, 
thick-necked  horses,  may  seriously  compress  the  larynx,  in  addi- 
tion to  causing  extreme  discomfort  and  nmscular  cramp. 


Fig.  147. — The  pulley  bridoon  bearing  rein. 

The  Coupling  Rein. — In  pair  harness  the  reins  consist  of 
tlie  draught  or  outside  reins  and  the  inside  or  coupling  reins, 
one  of  which  is  attached  to  each  draught  rein  and  passes  to  the 
inside  of  the  bit  of  the  opposite  horse.  A  pull  to  right,  for  in- 
stance, is  thus  communicated  to  the  off  side  of  each  horse's  mouth 
and  in  equal  degree,  provided  the  adjustment  of  the  coupling 
reins  has  been  properly  made. 

Coupling  is  the  finishing  touch  in  putting  a  pair  of  horses 
together,  and  determines  whether  they  are  to  drive  "  like  one 
horse  ''  or  whether  the  driver  is  to  be  ever  conscious  of  the  pres- 


278  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

ence  of  two  horses  in.  his  team.  In  order  to  exert  equal  pressure 
on  both  sides  of  each  mouth,  the  relative  carriage  of  heads, 
promptness  in  driving,  disposition,  etc.,  of  both  horses  must  be 
taken  into  consideration.  Witli  a  pair  of  horses  closely  matched 
in  everv  way,  the  coupling  reins  should  be  from  four  to  six 
inches  longer  than  the  draught  reins,  since  they  are  the  hypo- 
theni  of  triangles.  If  one  hoi*se  carries  his  head  higher  than  tlie 
other,  his  coupling  rein  should  be  on  top  in  order  not  to  be  borne 
down  upon  by  that  of  the  lower  headed  horse.  If  one-horse  sets 
his  liead  and  neck  in  a  flexed  position,  his  rein  should  be  short- 
ened to  take  up  the  slack  so.  produced.  Or  if  one  drives  more 
freely  than  the  other,  his  rein  must  be  shorter  to  keep,  him  under 
restraint  without  juilling  the  other  horse.  In  order,  however, 
to  keep  the  horses'  heads  an  equal  distance  apart  and  their  bodies 


N       N' 
Fig.  1-JS. — The  adjustment  of  the  coupling  reins  is  shown  by  the  dotted  lines. 

parallel  VMth  the  pole,  whatever  is  taken  up  in  one  rein  must  be 
let  out  in  the  other.  Having  the  coupling  reins  too  short  draws 
the  heads  together  and  throws  the  horses  out  from  the  pole,  some- 
times causing  them  to  fall,  on  pavements  and  do^vn  grades.  Too 
long  coupling  reins  turn  the  heads  out  and  the  bodies  in  against 
the  pole. 

Fig-ure  148  illustrates  by  solid  lines  the  position  of  the  reins 
when  the  horses  carry  their  heads  and  necks  alike,  AB  and  CD 
representing  the  bits  of  the  two  horses,  AM  and  DN  the  draught 
reins,  BN  and  CM  the  coupling  reins.  If,  however,  the  off  horse 
carries  his  chin  in,  or  for  other  reasons  requires  his  rein  to  be 
shortened,  the  altered  position  of  the  coupling  reins  is  sho^vii  by 
the  dotted  lines.  Coupling  rein  BN  is  taken  up  on  the  draught 
rein  to  iV^,  the  take  back  on  the  draught  rein  to  ^^  being  made 
by  the  hand  of  the  driver.    This,  however,  would  shorten  coupling 


EQUITATION  279 

rein  CM  unless  it  be  let  out  on  its  draught  rein  to  the  same 
extent  that  BN  has  been  shortened. 

The  more*  nervous  horse  is  often  put  on  the  off  side  so  as  to 
bring  the  other  horse  between  him  and  objects  to  be  passed  in  the 
road,  it  being  the.  American  rule  of  the  road  to  keep  to  the  right. 
It  also  brings  him  closer  to  the  hands  of  the  driver,  who  sits  on 
tlie  right  side.  The  largest  horse  is  customarily  put  on  the  off 
side  for  the  reason  that  in  turning  to  the  right  on  roads  the  sur- 
faces of  which  are  crowned,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  off  horse 
is  called  upon  to  pull  more  in  retuniing  the  load  to  the  centre  of 
the  road. 

Blinds  or  Winhers. — Many  horses  are  rendered  much  more 
serviceable  by  having  their  field  of  vision  restricted  to  the  direc- 
tion in  which  they  are  supposed  to  go.  Both  nervous  horses, 
which  will  jump  at  any  sudden  movement  of  those  behind  them, 
and  lazy  horses,  which  are  disposed  to  loaf,  usually  drive  much 
more  steadily  and  promptly  with  winkers.  Careful  adjustment 
of  the  winker,  both  as  to  height  and  as  to  length  of  the  winker 
stay,  should  be  made  so  as  to  prevent  the  horse's  looking  over  it, 
but.  allowing  full  vision  forward.  A  sudden  change  from  a  blind 
to  an  open,  bridle  or  the  reverse  may  bo  most  disconcerting  to  the 
horse.  Appointments  require  winkers  on  heavy  harness;  with 
light  harness  they  are  optional. 

Martingale. — There  are  two  varieties,  standing  and  ring. 
A  standing  martingale  is  a  strap  passing  from  the  belly  band, 
between  the  forelegs,  to  eitlier  the  bit  or  nose  band,  and  has  the 
effect  of  preventing  the  elevation  of  the  head  beyond  a  certain 
level.  It  is  most  generally  employed  on  trotters  that  are  diffi- 
cult to  catch  in  breaks,  saddle  horses  that  rear,  and  polo  ponies 
that  endanger  their  riders  by  throwing  their  heads  up  in  response 
to  the  severe  curb,  when  pulled  up  sharply. 

The  ring  martingale  is  not  attached  to  the  horse's  head,  but 
terminates  in  two  rings  througli  which  the  reins  pass.  Its  action 
is  generally  the  same  as  the  standing  martingale  but  in  less  de- 
gree. Its  adjustment  should  always  permit  of  the  reins  being 
almost  at  the  level  of  the  bit  and  turret  rings,  thus  holding  but 
not  pulling  the  horse's  head  down.    It  is  used  on  both  light  bar- 


280  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

ness  and  saddle  horses ;  the  snaffle  rein  only,  in  the  case  of  the 
latter,  passing  through  it. 

Nose  Band. — The  object  of  the  nose  band  is  to  keep  the 
mouth  shut  and  the  bit  in  position,  thus  preventing  jawing  and 
lugging.  It  also  serves  as  an  attachment  for  the  standing  mar- 
tingale. IIea\^  harness  and  most  riding  bridles  are  regularly 
equipped  with  nose  bands. 

Chill  Strap. — This  is  a  strap  that  passes  under  the  chin 
either  in  front  of  or  through  the  bit  especially  designed  for  it, 
and  serves  to  place  the  bearing  of  the  check  rein  under  the  chin 
instead  of  on  the  upper  jaw,  to  keep  the  mouth  shut,  and  to 
prevent  the  lateral  pulling  of  the  bit  through  the  horse's  mouth. 

The  bristle  bun-  is  a  round  leather  disc  fitted  around  the  bit 
inside  the  ring  or  shank,  against  the  cheek,  and  is  often  applied 
to  one  side  only.  It  is  used  on  horses  which  either  side  rein  or  bolt 
to  one  side,  in  order  to  keep  them  off  that  side  of  the  bit. 

The  Word. — Well-schooled  horses,  in  competent  hands,  may 
either  be  started,  pulled  up,  stopped,  backed,  or  changed  in  their 
gait  without  a  word  being  spoken.  Only  a  few  words,  such  as 
"  whoa,"  ''  back,"  and  possibly  "  steady,"  are  justifiable  under 
any  circumstances,  and  tliey  should  be  spoken  distinctly  and 
always  for  the  same  purpose.  It  is  more  the  tone  and  modulation 
of  the  voice,  in  speaking,  tlian  the  word  itself,  which  the  horse 
interprets.  The  objection  to  a  careless  and  indiscriminate  use 
of  Avords  in  either  driving  or  riding  is  that  they  are  not  only  con- 
fusing oftentimes  to  the  horse  for  which  they  are  intended,  but 
may  disturb  all  other  horses  mthin  hearing.  Every  horse  should 
know  and  heed  the  command  "  whoa,"  which  should  always 
mean  a  full  stop. 

The  whip  should  be  used  more  for  punishment  than  persua- 
sion. The  continued  tapping  of  the  whip,  like  the  jabbing  of 
the  reins,  will  make  a  loafer  of  any  horse.  Discretion  in  its 
application  will  insure  both  uniform  and  prompt  response. 

FOEM 

There  are  two  ends  sought  by  good  horsemanship :  First,  the 
safety  and  comfort  of  the  individuals  who  are  riding  or  driving, 
which  depends  upon  one's  ability  to  keep  his  horse  both  between 


EQUITATIOlsr  281 

fences  and  on  his  feet ;  and  second,  the  ease  with  which  this  is 
accomplished. 

Form  may  be  simply  defined  as  the  manner  in  which  a  thing 
is  done.  So  much  importance  is  attached  to  form  in  some  in- 
stances that  results  are  all  form  and  nothing  else.  Form  usu- 
ally marks  the  made  equestrian,  whose  real  horsemanship  still 
lacks  something.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  probable  that  the 
naturally  good  rider  or  driver  will  number  form  with  his  other 
accomplishments. 

Following  the  thought  of  the  definition,  it  may  be  inferred 
that  good  form  consists  in  doing  a  thing  in  the  correct  way. 


Fia.  149. — Reins  held  in  left  hand,  right  hand  free  for  take-back  or  whip. 

Right,  in  this  sense,  does  not  mean  according  to  the  dictates  of 
fashion  but  in  that  manner  which  insures  its  being  done  with 
greatest  efficiency  and  readiness.  We  should  accept  what  has 
been  established  as  the  correct  manner  of  riding  and  driving 
as  that  which  contributes  most  to  the  safety,  comfort,  and  appear- 
ance of  those  directly  concerned.  If  beginners  in  horsemanship 
could  be  induced  to  take  advice  from  some  one  who  really  knows, 
ultimate  results  would  be  much  more  satisfactory  to  both  them- 
selves and  their  horses.  One  frequently  sees  accidents  narrowly 
averted  or  the  most  flagrant  cruelties  practiced  purely  through 
the  ignorance  of  the  perpetrators,  who  would  be  as  much  dis- 


282 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


tressed  as  any  one  if  they  fullv  realized  the  seriousness  of  their 
mistakes. 

The  Rudiments  of  Driving. — The  rudiments  of  the  proper 
way  to  drive  are  as  follows :  Under  ordinary  conditions  drive 
with  the  left  hand,  with  the  right  hand  free  for  either  take-up  or 
whip ;  hold  the  near  rein  ov^er  the  forefinger,  the  off  rein  between 
tlie  middle  and  ring  fingers,  thus  leaving  the  reins  separated  by 
two  fingers,  which  allows  sufficient  space  to  introduce  the  fingers 
of  the  right  hand  (piickly,  to  take  back  (Fig.  149).  This  is 
done  by  dropping  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand  over 


Fig.   150.— The  take-back. 


tho  near  rein,  slipping  the  remaining  three  fingers  between  the 
two  reins  at.  such  distance  in  advance  of  the  left  hand  as  may  be 
required  (Fig.  150).  The  reins  should  be  gripped  by  their  edges 
rather  than  by  their  flat  sides.  Either  rein  may  be  taken  up 
by  the  right  hand  as  in  the  case  of  a  turn,  and  the  off  rein  may  be 
released  by  the  left  hand,  passing  through  the  right  hand  and 
over  the  thumb  in  case  a  two-hand  grip  is  desired  (Fig.  151). 
The  position  of  the  left  hand  should  be  with  the  knuckles 
turned  forward  and  perpendicular,  the  forearm  honzontal  and 
at  very  nearly  right  angles  with  the  reins.  This  position  insures 
the  greatest  freedom  of  wrist  and  fingers,  is  conducive  to  a  light 


EQUITATION 


283 


hand,  and  renders  almost  impossible  a  continuous,  dragging 
pull. 

Gloves  permit  of  botli  a  better  grip  and  more  easy  manipu- 
lation of  tlie  reins,  but  tliev  should  be  a  size  too  larce  and  un- 
buttoned  to  allow  the  greatest  freedom  of  the  fingers  and  wrist. 

Riding,— Holding  the  Reins. — The  usual  method  of  hokling 
tlio  reins  of  a  curb  and  snalHc  riding  bridle  is  to  take  the  near 
snaille  rein  over  tlie  little  finger  of  the  left  hand,  the  near  curb 
rein  between  the  little  and  ring  fiugers,  then  pass  the  off  curb  rein 
between  the  rinc:  and   niiddlo  finaers   and   the  off  snaffle   rein 


Fig.   151. — The  two-hand  grip. 

between  the  middle  and  index  fingers,  the  ends  of  all  four  reins 
coming  out  of  the  hand  over  tlie  index  finger  and  clasped  by  the 
thumb  (Fig.  152).  Eitlier  curb  or  snaffle  reins  can  be  taken  up 
independently  by  tlie  right  hand  back  of  the  left,  or  the  right  hand 
may  be  dropped  in  front  of  the  left,  the  little  finger  between  the 
off  curb  and  snaffle  reins  in  case  a  two-hand  grip  is  desired  (Fig. 
153).  The  hands  may  be  separated  and  their  position  on  the 
reins  changed  by  running  the  reins  through  the  fingers  as  the 
hands  are  drawn  apart. 

The  single  rein  from  the  plain  snaffle  bridle  is  usually  simply 
crossed  through  the  hands. 


284 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


The  trooper  holds  his  single  curb  reins  in  the  left  hand,  the 
two  separated  by  the  little  finger,  then  passed  through  the  hand 
and  over  the  index  finger,  where  they  are  clasped  bj  the  thumb. 


Fig.  152. — Riding,  reins  in  one-hand  grip,     a,  a',  snaffle  reins;  B,  B' ,  curb  reina. 


Fig.  153. — Riding,  two-hand  grip,     a,  a',  snaffle  reins;  B,  B',  curb  reins. 

The  COW  puncher  uses  an  open,  unbuckled  rein  which  falls 
to  the  ground  the  moment  it  is  released  from  the  hand,  serving 
to  hold  his  pony  as  though  anchored  securely.     He  usually  holds 


EQUITATION  285 

the  reins  loosely,  separated  by  the  forefinger,  or  with  both  reins 
gripped  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger. 

The  trooper,  mounted  officer,  or  cowboy  rides  with  one  hand 
in  order  to  have  a  free  hand  for  sabre,  gun,  stick,  or  rope,  but 
for  riding  in  the  park  and  cross  country  it  is  not  only  per- 
missible but  advisable  to  use  both  hands.  Continued  one-hand 
riding  with  tlie  other  hand  hanging  disengaged  has  a  tendency 
toward  an  unsymmctrical  development  and  carriage  of  shoulders. 
Since  the  trooper  and  cow  puncher  guide  their  horses  by  the  rein 
on  the  neck  exclusively,  using  the  bit  only  for  restraint,  the  finger- 
ing of  the  reins  in  their  cases  is  quite  different  from  that  which  is 
employed  in  riding  a  gaited  or  high  school  horse,  for  instance. 

The  use  of  the  reins  implies  pressure  on  the  bit,  with  one 
notable  exception — the  saddle  horse.  All  saddle  horses,  but 
especially  those  ridden  with  a  single  rein,  are  schooled  to  respond 
to  pressure  of  the  rein  on  the  neck  (rein  wise),  turning  away 
from  the  side  against  which  the  rein  is  carried.  If  the  reins 
are  crossed  in  front  of  the  horse's  neck,  pressure  on  one  side  of 
the  neck  puts  pressure  also  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  mouth, 
with  the  usual  result  so  far  as  the  horse  is  concerned.  Gradually 
he  can  be  taught  to  respond  to  the  rein  on  the  neck  without  wait- 
ing for  the  pressure  on  the  bit ;  clever  horses  even  learn  to  follow 
the  movement  of  the  hand  as  though  bringing  the  rein  against 
the  neck  on  one  side  or  the  other.  Of  course,  the  reins  are  not 
crossed  after  the  habit  has  been  acquired. 

REVIEW 

1.  Of  what  importance  are  the  horse's  mental  limitations? 

2.  What  is  the  principle  which  underlies  our  system  of  control? 

3.  What  is  the  line  of  iransmission,  from  driver  or  rider  to  horse,  of 

instructions  for  execution? 

4.  What  are  irood  hands;  a  good  moutli;  and  wliat  is  Iheir  rehition? 

5.  Describe  the  snaffle  and  the  curb  bits,  naming*  the  structures  of 

the  mouth  involved  by  each. 
G.  When  is  a  bit  of  the  i-ight  size  and  properly  adjusted? 

7.  For  what  puri:)Ose  was  the  over-draw  check  designed  and  to  what 

extent  is  it  abused? 

8.  When  are  the  coupling  reins  of  a  pair  of  hoi-ses  properly  adjusted? 

9.  To  what  extent  should  the  word  be  used  in  riding  or  driving?    Why? 
10.  What  is  the  proper  manner  of  holding  the  reins  in  driving?    Why? 


CHAPTER  XVII 
VEHICLE,   HARNESS,   AND    SADDLE 

It  is  quite  natural  to  assume  that  horses  were  ridden  long 
before  they  were  driven,  although  the  war  chariot  is  mentioneil 
in  some  of  the  earliest  references  to  the  horse  in  the  service  of 
man.  The  use  of  the  vehicle  is  so  generally  dependent  upon  the 
construction  of  roads,  and  the  nature  of  the  roads  in  early  times 
was  so  poor,  that  the  comfort  of  passengers  and  safety  of  goods 
were  much  greater  on  the  backs  of  horses  and  mules.  It  is  so 
even  to-day  in  the  newer  parts  of  our  ovm  countrs^  Even  after 
roads  were  built,  the  primitive  vehicles  were  so  crude  and  luml^jer- 
ing  that  they  Avere  used  chiefly  for  agricultural  hauling. 

After  the  pillion  method  of  conveying  people  came  the 
horse  litter  (fifteenth  century),  a  carriage  swung  between  two 
poles  which  were  supported  at  botli  ends  by  horses  which  were 
either  led  or  ridden. 

The  evolution  of  the  wheeled  vehicle  may  be  traced  in  steps : 
First,  the  most  cmde  sort  of  a  sledge,  often  consisting  of  the 
forked  branches  of  a  tree,  dragged  in  the  manner  of  a  stone  boat ; 
second,  the  addition  of  fixed  rollers ;  third,  the  turning  of  large 
rollers  into  the  fomi  of  wheels  or  rollers  on  the  ends  of  a  revolv- 
ing axle,  this  being  the  first  semblance  of  wheels  (Fig.  15-i)  ; 
fom'th,  a  fixed  wooden  axle  on  which  the  wheels  revolved,  being 
held  in  place  by  pins;  fifth,  the  construction  of  the  metal  axle 
with  boxed  hub  wheel,  designed  to  meet  if  not  to  minimize 
friction ;  sixth,  the  highest  development  of  this  idea,  represented 
in  the  modern  lubricated  or  even  roller  and  ball-bearing  axles, 
with  wheels  of  the  strons^est  vet  lightest  constniction. 

The  Wheel. — The  roller  is  the  means  bv  which  rubbino^  fric- 
tion  is  transformed  into  rolling  friction,  which  requires  very 
much  less  draught  to  overcome,  and  the  wheel  is  the  highest  type 
of  roller.  The  two  parts  of  the  wheel  concerned  with  friction 
are  the  tire,  which  rolls  on  the  road,  and  the  box  of  the  hub, 
286 


VEHICLE,  HARNESS,  AND  SADDLE 


287 


which  rubs  on  the  axle.  The  tire  rolls  not  only  on  the  ground 
but  also  over  any  obstacle  which  the  surface  of  the  road  may 
present.  The  widdi  of  the  tire  has  already  been  discussed  under 
"  Draft  of  the  Load/'  Chapter  XIII. 

The  resilience  of  the  tire  is  a  matter  the  importance  of 
which  has  been  made  more  appar- 
ent by  the  development  of  bicy- 
cling and  motoring.  The  resil- 
ience is  the  springing  back  of  the 
tread  behind  the  point  of  contact 
of  the  wheel  with  the  ground.  It 
may  be  present  either  in  the  tire 
of  the  wheel  or  the  surface  over 
which  the  wheel  rolls.  The  force 
of  the  resilience  is  equivalent 
to  the  additional  force  required 
to  compress  the  tread  ahead  of 
the  j^oint  of  contact,  as  the  wheel 
rolls. 

Rubber  tires  have  the  general 
effect  of  the  wheel  travelling  over 
a  yielding  surface,  which  in- 
creases the  draftj  but  if  the 
rubber  is  sufficiently  resilient  to 
restore  the  force  thus  expended, 
the  actual  draft  required  may 
be  reduced,  since  the  rubber 
cushion  acts  like  a  spring  in  ab- 
sorbing shock  and  thus  prevent- 
ing waste  of  power  in  lifting 
the  load  over  every  little  obstacle, 
then  letting  it  fall,  with  a  pound, 


on  the  road  again.     This  saving 


Fig.  154. — The  evolution  of  the  wheel. 


is  greater  the  higher  the  speed 
at  which  the  vehicle  is  pulled. 

The  pneumatic  tire,  acting  on  the  same  principle,  very  mate- 
rially reduces  the  draft  of  vehicles  so  equipped,  as  shown  by  the 
experiments  of  Morin : 


288 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


Iron  tires — Walk  three  miles  per  hour  .require  traction  of  48  lb.  per  ton 
Iron  tires — Trot  GVa  miles  per  hour.  . .  .require  traction  of  59  lb.  per  ton 
Iron  tires — Fast  trot  9.4  miles  per  hour  .require  traction  of  77  lb.  per  ton 

Pneumatic  tires — Walk require  traction  of  48  lb.  per  ton 

Pnemuatic  tires — At  other  paces requii'e  traction  of  50  lb.  per  ton 

Bearings. — Rubbing  friction  between  the  axle  and  tlie  box  of 
the  hub  with  which  it  is  in  contact  is  controlled  by  lubrication 
and  special  bearings  of  rollers,  cones  or  balls,  in  place  of  the 
simple  friction  bearing. 


(ZZ 


Fig.  155. — The  cylindrical  axle  arm. 


Fig.  156. — The  tapered  axle  arm. 


Axles  are  either  cylindrical  or  tapered.  The  cylindrical 
axle  arm  (Fig.  155)  insures  a  truer  bearing  and  easier  imnning, 
in  case  the  road  is  level  from  side  to  side,  the  tire  at  right  angles 
to  the  face  of  the  wheel  and  the  arm  itself  horizontal.  There  are 
many  reasons  for  modifying  these  conditions  prerequisite  to  the 
best  results  from  tlie  cylindrical  axle,  however,  which  render  the 
tapered  axle  better  adapted  to  common  use.     The  tapered  arm 


^.    y/y/v7^y////////. 

Fig.  1571-^— Tapered  axle  arms  pitched. 


Fig.   158. — An  unpitched  tapered  axle. 


(Fig.  15G)  is  stronger  for  a  given  weight,  since  it  is  heaviest  at 
the  point  of  greatest  strain,  the  shoulder.  With  the  tapered  axle 
it  is  a  much  simpler  matter  to  maintain  a  good  fit  between  axle 
and  box  by  the  use  of  leather  washers  placed  between  the  wheel 
and  the  shoulder  of  the  axle  than  in  the  case  of  the  cylindrical 
axle,  in  which  no  subsequent  adjustment  is  possible.  For  tliis 
reason  the  tapered  axle  is  much  more  easily  constructed.  Axle 
anus  are  so  pitched  (Fig.  157)  as  to  keep  the  wheel  running 


VEHICLE,  HARNESS,  AND  SADDLE 


289 


snug  to  tlie  shoulder  instead  of  running  off  as  it  would  tend 
to  do  witli  an  unpitched  tapered  axle  (Fig.  158).  Incidentally, 
this  pitch  places  tlie  tops  of  the  wheels  fartlier  apart  and,  there- 
fore, throws  the  mud  or  dust  away  from  instead  of  against  the 
body  of  the  wagon. 

Wheels  are  dished,  that  is  tlie  spokes  are  set  in  the  hub  at  an 
angle,  instead  of  perpendicularly,  for  several  reasons  (Fig. 
159).  In  the  case  of  a  pitched  axle,  dish- 
ing brings  tlie  spokes  of  the  lower  half  of 
the  wheel  into  an  upright  position,  in 
which  they  are  capable  of  sustaining  the 
greatest  weight.  Dishing  also  braces  the 
wheel  against  being  spnmg  by  a  lateral 
thrust  from  the  inside,  as  occurs  when  the 
vehicle  bounds  back  and  forth  from  side 
to  side  over  the  road.  Dishing  also 
affords  an  automatic  means  of  keeping 
wheels  tight  The  effect  of  wear  and  con- 
tinued battering  over  stones,  rails,  and 
all  kinds  of  rough  roads  is  to  expand 
metal  tires,  thus  allowing  the  sjDokes  to 
loosen  in  both  hub  and  felloe.  In  the 
dished  Avheel,  however,  the  spokes  are  not 
only  set  at  an  angle,  but  the  tire,  after 
being  expanded  by  fire,  is  fitted  so  close 
that  when  suddenly  contracted  by  cold 
water  it  draws  the  ends  of  the  spokes 
into  a  still  greater  dished  position  than 
they  were  originally  set  in.  Therefore, 
any  expansion  that  occurs  in  the  tires 
is  immediately  taken  up  by  the  spokes 

springing  toward  the  perpendicular.  The  centrifugal  force  of 
the  revolving  wheel  also  operates  to  throw  the  spokes  into  a  per- 
pendicular position,  Avhich  assists  in  keeping  tliem  taut  against 
the  felloe  and  tire,  by  which  they  are  bound. 

In  pitching  the  axle  arms  or  dishing  the  wheels,  care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  the  tire  parallel  with  tlie  road  surface  so  as  not  to 
drag  or  scuff,  as  motorists  say,  but  roll  evenly  over  its  entire  width. 
19 


Fig.  159.  — The  dished 
arrangement  of  the  spokes  in 
the  hub. 


290 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


Very  light  wheels  may  have  the  spokes  set  in  the  hub  in 
staggered  fashion  (Fig.  160)  in  order  to  brace  the  wheel  against 
being  sprung  by  a  side  thrust  from  either  direction.  Instead  of 
being  lined  up  in  tlie  hub  evei*y  other  spoke  is  set 
outside  the  centre  of  the  hub,  which  is  directly 
in  line  with  the  felloe,  the  other  spokes  being 
set  inside.  Thus  each  alternate  half  of  the 
spokes  braces  the  wheel  in  opposite  directions. 
Wheeled  passenger  vehicles  were  first  intro- 
duced into  England  in  1555,  according  to  Sir 
Walter  Gilbey,  and  were  in  limited  use  in 
France  a  little  before  that  time.  Queen  Elizabeth 
was  the  first  sovereign  to  use  a  coach,  it  having 
been  brought  from  the  ^Netherlands  and  pre- 
sented to  her  by  a  Dutchman,  William  Boonen, 
who  later  became  her  coachman.  This  was  one' 
of  the  first  carriages  seen  in  England  and  was  of  most  cumber- 
some but  pretentious  design  (Fig.  161). 

Progress  in  carriage  building  was  as  rapid  as  the  gradual  im- 


FiG.  160.— The 
staggered  arrange- 
ment of  the  spokes 
in  the  hub. 


Fig.   161. — One  of  the  cumbersome  and  pretentious  early  coaches. 


provement  of  the  roads  would  permit,  and  they  remained  in  very 
bad  condition  until  late  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

Steel  springs  were  first  used  in  1670,  although  our  buckboard 
idea  had  been  represented  at  a  much  earlier  time,  in  the  way  of 


VEHICLE,  HARNESS,  AND  SADDLE 


291 


strap  siipi")Oi*ts  in  which  the  body  of  the  vehicle  was  slung  (Fig. 
162)  J  or  two  long,  supple  poles,  supported  at  the  ends  by  the 
axles,  and  upon  which  the  body  was  suspended.  Iron  tires  were 
rej)orted  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  although 
wooden  rims,  braced  with  iron  at  the  joints,  had  been  previously 
used. 

Use  of  Biihher. — Early  attempts  Avere  made  at  shock  absorp- 
tion, it  being  no  doubt  more  imperative  then  than  now,  on  ac- 
count of  the  rough  condition  of  the  roads.  The  pneumatic  tire 
Avas  patented  in  France  in  1846,  but  proved  impracticable  at 
that   time.      Before    this,    inflated   cushions   over  the   springs, 


Fig.   162. — Strap  supports  in  wliich  the  bodj^  of  the  vehicle  was  slung. 


rubber  cushions  inside  the  hubs,  and  spring  spokes  had  all  been 
attempted.  In  1883  rubber  cushions  under  the  iron  tires  were 
tried. 

The  first  brakes  Avere  used  1860  to  1865. 

Superior  IFoor/xS. — A  distinct  advantage  is  claimed  for 
American  carriage  builders  over  those  of  any  other  country  on 
account  of  the  superior  AA^oods  Avhich  are  available  to  them. 
Hickory  is  fast  replacing  oak  in  carriage  construction,  and 
American  AA^oods  are  extensively  exported  for  the  use  of  foreign 
manufacturers.  The  American  idea  in  carriage  design  is  light, 
rigid  strength  of  the  "  split  hickory  "  sort,  Avhile  foreign  car- 
riages are  much  heavier.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  exchange 
of  ideas  betAveen  England  and  the  United  States ;  while  carriages 


292 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


of  English  type  have  come  to  dominate  our  show  rings,  the  Eng- 
lishmen are  showing  their  high  steppers  to  a  bike  wheeled  vehicle 
not  unlike  our  American  road  wagon  (Fig.  163). 


Fig.  163. — A  class  of  English  harness  horses. 

Vehicles  Classified. — Vehicles  may  he  classified  as  follows : 

I.  For  the  transportation  of  merchandise : 

1.  Van  5.  Wagon 

2.  Dray  6.  Express  Delivery 

3.  Truck  T.  Light  Delivery 

4.  Cart 

II.  Four-wheelers  for  the  transportation  of  passengers: 

1.  Omnibus  9.  Eockaway 

2.  Opera  Bus  10.  Mail  Phaeton 

3.  Wagonette  11.  Demi  Mail  Phaeton 

4.  Station  Wagon  12.  Stanhope  Phaeton 

5.  Berlin  13.  Spider  Phaeton 

6.  Landau  14.  George  I V( Lady's) Phaeton 

7.  Brougham  15.  Sayler  Wagon 

8.  Coupe  16.  Victoria 


VEHICLE,  HARNESS,  AND  SADDLE  293 


17. 

Cabriolet 

22. 

Trap 

18. 

Surrey 

23. 

Park  Drag 

19. 

Eun  about 

24. 

Eoad  Coach 

20. 

Road  Wagon 

25. 

Brake 

21. 

Spe«d  Wagon 

Two-wheelers  for  the  transportation  of  passengers 

1.  Gig  4.  Brake  Cart 

2.  Hansom  5.  Jogging  Cart 

3.  Jaunting  Car  6.   Sulky 


THE  HARNESS 

There  are  three  general  classes  of  harness, — work,  hea\^, 
and  light.  The  chief  distinctions  bet^veen  the  latter  have  already 
been  referred  to.  Heavy  harnesses  are  differentiated  as  coach, 
gig,  and  runabout.  The  typical  light  harness  is  also  designated 
as  a  single  strap  or  track  harness. 

THE   SADDLE 

Horses  were  ridden  long  before  saddles  were  thought  of,  but 
saddles  of  various  sorts  were  described  at  an  early  period.  The 
horse  cloth  was  used  first  (800  b.c),  but  real  saddles,  with  trees, 
were  reported  in  tlie  fourth  century  a.d.  The  side-saddle  w^as 
introduced  by  Anne  of  Bohemia  in  the  last  half  of  the  fourteenth 
century. 

Types. — There  are  in  general  three  types  of  saddles  and,  cor- 
respondingly, three  ^vays  of  sitting  them  or  "  seats  ": 

The  English  or  flat,  pig  skin  saddle  is  used  for  park  riding, 
hunting,  polo,  and  racing,  wdth  some  modifications  especially 
adapting  it  to  each  purj^ose.  Its  chief  characteristics  are  a  low 
tree,  also  low  pommel  and  cantle,  padding,  skirts  usually  with 
knee  pads,  buckled  girths  usually  double,  and  open  steel  stir- 
rups. Seat. — Natural  sitting  posture,  stirrups  medium  length, 
knee  grip,  posting  the  trot.  See  illustrations  of  gaited  and  walk- 
trot-canter  saddle  horses.  Chapter  V. 


291 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


The  McClellan  saddle  is  the  regulation  United  States  Anny 
saddle.     Its  features  are  a  medium  liigli,  open  tree,  open  seat, 


Fig.  164.— PLilaJciijLia  u.uuni.--d  p^'li.-  'Muipi-.-l  u 

curb  bridle.s. 


MrCl-lll 


dlks  and  single-rein 


Fig.  165. — The  style  of  riding  to  which  the  stock  saddle  is  best  adapted. 


high,  pommel  and  cantle,  blanket  pad,  cinch,  and  hooded  stirrups. 
Scat. — Close,  pommel  and  cantle  support,  long  stirrup  and  thigh 
grip  (Fig.  164). 


VEHICLE,  HARNESS,  AND  SADDLE  295 

The  stock  or  Texas  saddle  is  used  exclusively  for  range  work 
and  for  rough  riding  in  general  throughout  the  West.  Its  feat- 
ures are  a  heavy  steel  tree,  a  very  high  pommel  surmounted  with 
a  horn  for  roping,  deep  seat,  very  high  cantle,  heavy  square  skirts, 
double  cinch,  no  buckles,  and  heavy  wooden  or  steel,  hooded  or 
open  stirrups.  Seat. — Comparatively  loose  but  balanced, 
straight  leg  and  long  stirrup  (Fig.  165). 

BRIDLES 

Eiding  bridles  are  snafEe,  curb,  or  curb  and  snaffle.  The 
plain  snaffle  is  used  on  race  horses,  some  hunters,  and  ponies; 
the  curb  alone  in  cavalry  and  police  ser\ace  and  by  stockmen; 
the  curb  and  snaffle  on  either  gaited  or  walk-trot-canter  saddle 
horses,  some  hunters,  and  polo  ponies. 

A  special  hunting  snaffle,  with  double  rein,  one  of  which  is 
run  through  a  ring  martingale,  is  most  commonly  used  on  hunters. 

REVIEW 

1.  Why   do  we  presume  that  horses  were  ridden   before  they  were 

driven  ? 

2.  What  were  the  steps  in  the  evolution  of  the  wheeled  vehicle  1 

3.  Why  does  a  wheeled  vehicle  require  less  traction  than  a  stone  boat? 

4.  What  is  the  effect  of  rubber  tires  on  draft? 

5.  Why  are  axle  anns  pitched? 

6.  Wh}^  are  wheels  dished? 

7.  How  are  vehicles  classified?     Give  an  example  of  each  class. 

8.  What  are  the  three  classes  of  harness  and  the  essential  features  of 

each? 

9.  What  are  the  chief  differences  in  the  three  types  of  saddles  and  the 

"  seats  "  with  which  they  are  ridden  ? 
10.  Name  the  types  of  riding  bridles  and  the  uses  of  each. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

MARKETS  AND  SHOWS 

The  horse  show  serves  a  manifold  purpose.  It  entertains 
the  jDublic,  furnishes  high-class  sport  for  exhibitors,  stimulates 
interest  in  horses  and  equestrianism,  promotes  the  horse  breed- 
ing industiy  by  affording  the  best  means  of  advertising,  and, 
most  imix>rtant  of  all,  it  establishes  ideals  or  standards  for  the 
guidance  of  breeders. 

Classes  of  Show  Horses. — Show  horses  are  classified  into 
market  and  breeding  divisions.  In  the  market  division  the 
classes  are  made  up  on  the  basis  of  type,  primarily,  the  hoi-ses 
of  each  type  being  classified  either  according  to  weight,  height, 
or  performance  and  further  into  singles,  pairs,  threes,  fours, 
sixes,  and  so  on.  Age,  sex,  and  breed  are  not  as  a  rule  consid- 
ered in  the  market  classification.  Any  class  may  in  addition 
have  special  requirements,  as  "  performance  only  to  count "  or 
"  conformation  40  per  cent.,  performance  60  per  cent.'' 

Breeding  classes  are  made  up  on  the  basis  of  age,  duplicated 
for  each  sex  and  in  connection  with  each  breed.  In  addition 
there  are  usually  classes  for  get  of  sire,  produce  of  dam,  groups 
either  bred  or  o^\Tied  by  exliibitor,  and  specials. 

Fitting  horses  for  the  show  ring  consists  in  schooling  them 
for  a  creditable  performance  and  feeding  and  grooming  them 
into  the  condition  and  bloom  in  which  tliey  make  the  best  ap- 
pearance. All  show  horses,  of  whatever  type,  should  be  fat 
in  some  degree. 

Showing. — Breeding  classes  are  shown  "  in  hand  "  either 
with  lead  bridle  or  on  the  lung-e  rein,  in  the  case  of  stallions; 
to  halter  frequently,  in  the  case  of  mares.  Trotters  and  pacers 
are  usually  sho^m  beside  a  pony,  while  drafters  and  heavy  har- 
ness horses  are  sho^\ni  by  runners  on  foot. 

Market  classes  are  shown  in  harness  or  under  saddle,  as  the 
case  may  l^e.  An  exception  is  made  in  the  case  of  drafters, 
which  are  shown  to  halter  as  well  as  in  harness.  Harness  horses 
296 


MARKETS  AND  SHOWS  297 

should  be  put  to  appropriate  veliicles ;  appointments  may  or  may 
not  count,  as  indicated  in  the  class  requirements.  Harness  and 
saddle  horses  should  be  either  driven  or  ridden  well  into  the 
corners  of  the  ring,  in  order  to  go  as  much  of  the  route  as  pos- 
sible straight  away. 

Exliibitors  are  at  all  times  subject  to  the  direction  of  the 
ring  master,  who  acts  under  the  instmctions  of  the  judges.  Con- 
testants, not  in  the  short  leet  or  disqualified  for  any  reason,  are 
dismissed  from  the  ring  or  '^  given  the  gate." 


HORSE    MARKETS 

C^ommerce  is  the  interchange  of  commodities,  and  the  market 
is  the  medium  for  this.  The  exchange  takes  place  between  the 
producer  on  the  one  hand  and  the  consumer  on  the  other,  market 
vahies  being  dctennined  by  the  balance  maintained  between  the 
amount  produced  and  the  anioimt  consumed.  Consumption  be- 
ing fixed,  over-production  bears  or  depresses  the  market  while 
under-production  will  bring  about  an  increase  in  market  values. 
With  a  given  amount  produced,  excessive  consumption  bulls  or 
increases  market  values,  while  a  decrease  in  the  demand  from 
the  consumer  \\i\\  have  an  opposite  effect  on  values. 

The  demand  of  the  consumer  not  only  determines  market 
values,  but  also  the  character  of  the  product  for  which  the  top 
price  can  be  secured.  Therefore,  while  both  the  producer  and 
the  consumer  are  concerned  in  maintaining  the  strength  of  the 
market  and  with  the  character  of  the  product  involved,  it  is  the 
consumer  who  really  rules.  This  is  a  most  important  fact  for 
the  horse  breeder  to  realize. 

The  Breeder  and  the  Market. — ^Unfortunately  there  is  a  dif- 
ference between  horse  breeding  and  the  production  of  market 
horses.  Too  many  breeders  operate  independently  or  in  total 
ignorance  of  market  conditions  and  requirements.  Their  ideal  of 
a  market  horse  is  both  single  and  selfish  and  does  not  comprehend 
t\^e  or  class  distinction.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  an  ow^ner 
sacrificing  a  colt  which  has  some  real  outcome  in  a  market  class 
for  which  the  demand  is  strong  but  of  which  the  owTier  knows 
nothing,  while  trying  to  secure  his  price  for  one  of  whose  value 


298  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

he  lias  either  an  erroneous  or  exaggerated  notion.  ''  Picked  out 
of  the  bushes  "  means  bought  cheaply  from  an  obscure  owner  who 
had  no  concei)tion  of  the  hole's  idtimate  value.  It  represents  the 
practice  of  buyers  who  measure  tlieir  profits  by  the  ignorance^  in 
horse  matters,  of  those  from  whom  they  buy. 

With  the  exception  of  drafters,  the  horse  breeder  receives  a 
smaller  percentage  of  the  price  his  colt  eventually  brings  than 
in  the  case  of  any  other  live  stock  product.  It  is  true  that  most 
fanners  are  not  equipped  with  time  or  facilities  to  properly 
school  or  train  high-class  saddle,  show,  or  race  horses,  the  ex- 
pense of  which  is  usually  w^orth  about  as  much  as  the  original 
cost  of  the  green  horse,  but  they  frequently  do  not  receive  full 
value  for  their  product  in  the  rough,  to  which  they  are  justly 
entitled. 

In  order  to  produce  salable  colts  and  to  realize  full  value  for 
them,  the  breeder  must  keep  himself  well  informed  as  to  the 
character  of  the  horses  that  are  topping  the  markets.  And  the 
horse  that  brought  the  high  price  years  ago  may  not  be  the  best 
seller  to-day,  since  market  demand  is  continually  undergoing 
some  modification  which  should  be  taken  into  account  by  the 
producer,  if  he  is  to  be  successful.  Furthermore,  the  breeder 
should  be  able  to  see,  in  prospect,  into  just  what  his  colt  is 
capable  of  developing. 

A  knowledge  of  dealers,  conditions  of  sale,  and  other  essen- 
tials also  aids  materially  in  negotiating  a  satisfactory  sale. 

The  particular  class  desired  will  of  course  depend  upon  the 
purpose  for  which  the  horse  is  purchased.  It  is  important,  how- 
ever, that  the  requirements  of  some  definite  class  shall  be  met,  as 
those  horses  which  are  oft'  type  or  misfits  constitute  the  remnant 
stock  of  the  horse  market  for  which  the  lowest  price  and  least 
profit  are  realized. 

First-handedness. — Service  in  the  city  usually  draws  the 
line  between  first-  and  second-handedness.  Marked  evidence,  of 
a  horse's  being  second-handed  consists  of  the  blemishes  and  minor 
unsoundnesses  which  come  as  a  result  of  wear  and  tear,  such  as 
jniffs,  sprung  knees,  and  cocked  ankles.  The  dealer  in  buying 
first-hand  country  horses  prefers  that  they  should  be  untrimmed 
in  any  way. 


MARKETS  AND  SHOWS  299 

Sex. — As  a  rule  geldings  outsell  mares  on  account  of  their 
more  general  usefulness  throughout  the  season  and  also  in  view 
of  the  possibility  of  mares  being  in  foal.  Spring  fann  trade 
may  demand  mares. 

The  Origin  of  Market  Classes. — The  origin  of  market  classes 
is  based  on  utility.  Horses  are  required  to  perform  a  certain 
kind  of  service,  and  it  is  determined  tliat  those  of  certain  definite 
features  are  better  adapted  to  do  this  particular  line  of  work  than 
liorses  of  any  other  sort.  Thus,  demand  takes  the  form  of 
S])ecific  requirements  by  the  consumer,  and  there  are  created 
distinct  market  classes.  Some  of  the  classes  are  more  or  less 
arbitrary  as  to  name  and  requirements,  so  that  on  different 
markets  it  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  between  them.  The 
major  divisions,  however,  can  be  differentiated  on  the  broad 
basis  of  type. 

Market  horses  are,  first  of  all,  either  classified  or  unclassified 
(see  chapter  on  the  Classes  of  Horses). 

Sales  are  eitlier  public  or  private.  Public  sales  are  con- 
ducted by  auctioneers  and  dealers;  private  sales  by  private 
owners  and  dealers.  Sales,  whether  public  or  private,  are  usually 
followed  as  soon  as  possible  by  a  transference  of  the  liorse  to  the 
buyer,  who  is  allowed  two  days  in  which  to  give  the  liorse  fair 
examination  and  trial,  at  the  end  of  which  time,  if  the  hoi-se  is 
not  returned,  the  sale  is  considered  complete.  '^  Two  days  "  is 
the  rule  most  strictly  abided  by,  but  under  certain  conditions 
this  may  be  extended  to  ten  days  or  even  two  weeks,  if  so  stated. 

Letters  or  evidence  bearing  upon  a  contract  may  complete  it 
m  law,  -so  that  when  horses  are  bought  by  correspondence  the 
letters  and  documents  act  as  a  part  of  tlie  contract. 

When  any  defects  or  unsoundnesses,  otherwise  apparent,  are 
purposely  covered  up  or  hidden  in  any  way,  and  discovered  after 
the  sale,  the  buyer  has  redress.  The  measure  of  damages  he  can 
recover  is  the  difference  between  the  price  paid  hy  him  and  the 
price  he  receives  upon  selling  the  horse  in  an  open  market . 

Auctioneers  are  usually  licensed  as  such  and  are  legally 
bound  to  conduct  their  sales  under  certain  conditions. 

Conditions  of  Sale. — The  buyer  should  familiarize  himself 
with  the  conditions  of  sale.     In  all  cases  horses  must  be  as  rep- 


300  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

resented,  but  in  catalogues  or  bills  the  owner's  statement  below 
the  description  of  a  horse  is  not  to  be  taken  as  a  part  of  the  con- 
tract or  guarantee.  As  a  nile,  age,  height,  weight,  and  speed 
are  not  guaranteed  in  these  sales. 

Sales  are  usually  for  cash,  subject  to  the  terms  set  forth  in 
catalogues  and  bills  and  specified  at  the  opening  of  the  sale  by 
the  auctioneer. 

The  owner  is  the  only  responsible  party  in  sales.  The  auc- 
tioneer is  an  intermediate  party  acting  as  the  owner's  agent  or 
representative,  but  he  is  also  a  protection  to  the  buyer,  as  he  can 
hold  the  seller  to  any  statements  he  may  make  concerning  the 
conditions  under  which  the  horse  is  sold. 

In  most  markets  horses  previously  sold  may  be  run  through 
the  sale  like  any  other  horses  in  order  to  give  it  life,  color,  and  en- 
couragement, and  this  is  not  considered  an  unlawful  practice. 

Sales  Ring  Warranty. — In  Chicago,  the  largest  horse  market 
in  America,  horses  are  sold  under  five  different  guarantees  of 
soundness,  viz. : 

1.  Sound. — The  horse  meets  all  requirements  of  soundness ; 
comparatively  rare. 

2.  Serviceahhj  Sound. — Unsound  in  some  respect,  which 
does  not  interfere  with  his  fitness  for  the  particular  service  for 
which  sold. 

3.  Sound  to  Wind  and  Work. — The  horse's  wind  is  good  and 
he  will  work,  but  he  is  otherwise  unsound. 

4.  Worker  Only. — True  to  woi*k;  all  other  conditions  are 
to  the  eye  of  the  buyer. 

6.  At  the  Halter. — Carrying  witli  it  no  warrant  or  guarantee 
Avhatever. 

Often  horses  sold  at  the  halter  are  those  that  have  been  sold 
under  previous  guarantee  and  turned  back,  or  sold  to  adjust  some 
dispute  or  difficulty. 

With  all  Faults. — AMien  a  horse  is  sold  "  with  all  faults  " 
the  seller  is  relieved  from  all  liability. 

Private  Sales. — It  is  often  desirable  for  intending  pur- 
chasers to  buy  from  private  o\Miers  or  dealers,  under  conditions 
which  pei-mit  of  more  thorough  examination. 

How  to  Buy  a  Horse. — There  is  probably  nothing  about  the 


MARKETS  AND  SHOWS  301 

purchase  of  which  there  is  so  much  suspicion  and  misgiving 
as  a  horse,  yet  there  are  horses  sold  on  their  merits  and  at  prices 
which  they  are  well  worth.  It  may  be  further  stated  that  there 
is  nothing  else  in  the  purchase  of  which  the  buyer  expects  so 
much  for  so  little.  There  probably  always  will  be  gyp  dealers, 
but  the  only  excuse  for  their  existence  is  the  credulity,  ignor- 
ance, short-sightedness,  and  narrow  policy  of  buyers.  These 
traits  of  character  constitute  the  business  assets  of  tlie  illegitimate 
seller. 

On  the  other  hand,  much  has  been  accomplished  in  an  effort 
to  ])ut  the  horse  business*  on  a  sound  basis,  where  dealers  stake 
their  reputation  on  their  sales  the  sauie  as  is  done  with  pianos, 
real  estate,  diamonds,  or  any  commodity  of  trade.  Oue  does  not 
hesitate  to  pay  a  premium  for  a  watch,  a  hat,  or  even  a  bottle  of 
milk,  which  is  the  product  of  a  house  or  finn  Avith  a  i'e])utatiou 
for  furnishing  full  value*  in  their  gooxls.  Yet  a  horse  dealer  is 
charged  with  unfairness  and  even  chicanery,  in  many  cases,  if 
he  charges  much  more  than  the  cost  of  the  raw  material  after 
having  "  made  "  the  horses  and  sold  them  with  a  guarantee  which 
protects  the  buyer  from  even  the  inevitable.  This;  is  done 
at  the  risk  of  the  seller,  who  hazards  niiiny  things  for  which  he 
is  in  no  way  responsible,  even  should  they  occur.  Another  source 
of  difficulty  is  the  indiscriminate  manner  in  which  advice  is 
accepted.  The  coachman,  the  town  liveryman,  the  village  black- 
smith. Uncle  Hiram,  and  all  the  others  are  regarded  as  the  wise 
ones,  whose  conflicting  opinions  must  be  accorded  more  consid- 
eration than  the  claims  of  the  perfectly  respectable  citizen  whose 
own  business  prosperity  depends  upon  the  horses  he  sells  making 
good  all  he  claims  for  them. 

It  is  a  ridiculous  situation.  Any  person  who  cares  suffi- 
ciently for  a  horse  to  use  him  intelligently  and  with  satisfaction 
should  be  competent  to  buy  one.  He  should  be  able  to  deter- 
mine, by  trial,  whether  or  not  the  horse  meets  the  buyer's  require- 
ments ;  and  if  he  is,  temporarily  at  least,  sound  of  eyes,  wind, 
and  limb.  If  there  is  any  question  in  regard  to  an  obscure  un- 
soundness, the  services  of  a  veterinarian  should  be  employed  to 
settle  that  point.  If  one  does  not  feel  qualified  to  make  his  oa\ti 
selection,  but  finds  it  necessary  to  seek  advice,  he  should  go  direct 


302  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

to  the  dealer — onlj  reputable  ones  to  be  considered — admit  his 
ignorance,  state  his  requirements,  and  put  himself,  without  any 
reservation,  in  the  dealer's  hands.  It  should  not  be  difficult  to 
find  a  dealer  who  would  measure  up  to  a  responsibility  of  this 
kind.  But  he  will  charge,  in  the  price  of  the  horse,  a  reasonable 
fee  for  telling  the  truth  about  things  of  which  the  buyer  is  free 
to  confess  he  knows  little  or  nothing.  For  such  advice  the  buyer 
can  well  afford  to  pay.  If,  however,  he  2)laccs  no  faith  in  the 
dealer,  nor  credits  him  with  any  conscience,  but  he  and  his 
advising  friends  proceed  to  bluff  their  way  to  a  satisfactory 
jmrchase,  they  are  tempting  fate — and  the  dealer. 

Avoid  all  go-hetweens  who  are  '^  in  the  deal  "  for  a  profit. 
If  it  is  a  harness  or  saddle  horse  that  is  to  be  bought,  do  the 
dealer  the  honor  to  eliminate  the  coachman  from  the  transac- 
tion. It  is  astonishing  how  gentlemen  who  consider  themselves 
so  thoroughly  competent  to  manage  their  own  affairs  that  they 
resent  the  least  suggestion  on  most  matters,  make  their  coachmen 
tlic  absolute  masters  of  the  situation  in  all  affairs  pertaining  to 
their  stables.  This  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  aggTavating 
l)ropositions  witli  which  the  square-dealing  horse  seller  has  to 
contend,  and  has  much  to  do  with  keeping  the  price  of  horses 
high.  If  some  '^  direct  to  the  consumer  "  method  of  conducting 
the  horse  business  were  permitted  by  buyers,  it  would  be  much 
to  the  mutual  benefit  of  all  concerned. 

When  huying  gree7i  Jiorses  in  the  country,  or  whenever  the 
buyer  has  no  recourse  but  to  rely  on  his  own  ingenuity  in  making 
a  selection,  some  system  should  be  followed.  It  is  import.ant 
that  the  horse  be  inspected  in  the  stable.  !N'ote  the  condition  of 
his  stall ;  this  is  the  place  to  detect  such  vices  as  kicking,  crib- 
bing, and  weaving.  Consider  how  he  stands  on  his  feet  and  the 
manner  in  which  he  backs  out  on  the  floor.  The  first  few  steps 
taken  after  standing  vnW  often  reveal  what  the  next  few  will 
quickly  obscure.  "Watch  him  harnessed,  put  to,  and  driven  out 
Here  again  and  here  only  many  disagreeable  traits  may  be  dis- 
covered. Try  him  out  in  whatever  way  desired,  ^ever  buy  a 
horse  "  hot,"  i.e.,  warmed  up.  It  may  be  more  convenient  to 
have  a  horse  or  a  pair  brought  round  for  inspection,  but  there 
are  a  number  of  conditions  of  unsoundness  that  a  horse  may  be 


MARKETS  AND  SHOWS  303 

wanned  out  of.  Examine  the  eyes  with  a  shadow  cast  on  them ; 
note  the  relative  size  of  the  two  front  feet;  then  wind  him  and 
work  him  to  see  how  he  goes. 

The  company  plan  of  selling  stallions  may  or  may  not  be  a 
perfectly  legitimate  transaction.  It  has  its  advantages  and 
disadvantages  to  both  buyers  and  sellers.  It  frequently  happens 
that  ten  or  twelve  mare  o^vners  in  a  community  w^ould  prefer 
taking  a  share  or  two  of  company  stock  to  owning  a  stallion  out- 
right. To  them  the  company  plan  renders  available  the  services 
of  a  valuable  stallion  of  which  they  would  otherwise  be  deprived. 
If  they  simply  subscribe  for  their  own  stock  and  take  no  further 
part  in  the  deal,  they  may  expect  the  expense  of  organizing  the 
company  and  selling  the  horse  to  them  to  be  included  in  his  cost 
price.  Yet  if  a  good  selection  is  made,  each  subscriber  may  re- 
ceive good  value,  allowing  for  his  o^vn  time  saved.  When,  how- 
ever, the  company  plan  is  adopted  as  a  means  of  unloading  a 
counterfeit  stallion  for  which  there  is  no  sale  at  the  firm's  stables, 
the  horse  being  shipped  to  the  to^vn  selected,  accompanied  by  a 
smooth  salesman  abundantly  supplied  ^\atli  cash  with  ^diich  to 
mix  among  prospective  subscribers  and  finally  put  through  a 
sale,  it  should  be  condemned. 

The  company  plan  of  huying  is  preferable  to  the  company 
selling  plan.  Let  the  organization  of  the  company  be  instigated 
and  perfected  by  tliose  interested,  and  one  or  more  of  the  mem- 
bers be  delegated  to  go  direct  to  the  seller's  headquarters,  make 
a  selection,  and  pay  cash.  Othen^^se  the  cost  of  the  same  stallion 
will  be  about  20  per  cent  more,  if  sold  on  the  company  plan 
and  the  cost  of  the  sale  a.dded  to  his  price. 

REVIEW 

1.  What  is  a  market,  and  how  are  market  classes  and  values  determined  1 

2.  What  is  the  importance  of  market  information  to  the  breeder  and 

feeder? 

3.  Explain  the  creation  of  market  classes. 

4.  What  is  a  second-handed  horse  ? 

5.  What  are  the  usual  conditions  of  sale"? 

6.  Name  six  "don'ts"  to  obsel'^'e  in  buying;  a  horse. 

7.  Is  the  company  plan  of  seHins:  stallions  commendable? 

8.  How  are  show  horses  classified  ? 

9.  Of  what  does  fitting  for  show  consist  ? 

10.  How  are  the  different  classes  of  horses  shown? 


CHAPTER  XIX 

TRANSPORTATION 

Hace  and  sliow  horses  and  also  market  horses  for  sale,  which 
are  shipped  long  distances,  as  from  the  Middle  West  to  the 
Eastern  markets,  are  usually  carried  by  exj^ress,  while  individ- 
ual horses  or  even  a  carload,  shipped  to  or  from  local  points, 
ordinarily  go  l>y  freight. 

Express  Cars. — The  express  companies  furnish  either  horse 
cars  fitted  with  adjustable  stall  partitions  which  accommodate 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  horses  standing  four  abreast  lengthwise  of 
the  car  (Fig.  166)  ;  or  large,  loose  horse  cars  open  about  one- 
fourth  the  way  down  from  the  top  and  accommodating  twenty- 
eight  head  with  sufficient  space  to  permit  of  their  moving  about 
and  picking  mates.  The  former  type  of  car  is  used  most  by  stal- 
lion importers,  while  the  latter  is  preferred  by  the  shippers  of 
market  geldings. 

For  freight  shipment  open  stock  cars  are  found  to  be  less 
draughty  and  afford  better  ventilation  than  closed  box  cars.  Ex- 
perienced shippers  of  the  highest  class  of  horses  declare  they 
have  less  sickness  subsequent  to  shipment,  even  in  winter,  in  the 
open  car.  Horses  are  much  less  likely  to  contract  colds  if  con- 
tinuously exposed  to  low  temperatures  than  if  chilled,  even 
slightly,  after  a  period  of  overheating,  and  the  danger  of  infec- 
tion is  always  inverse  to  the  amount  of  fresh  air  available.  Most 
stock  cars  built  nowadays  are  equipped  with  double  coil  springs 
to  insure  easy  riding  whether  loaded  heavy  or  light,  a  rigid  steel 
underframe  to  prevent  sagging,  shock-absorbing  draw-bars, 
rounded  edges,  countersunk  bolt-heads  and  nuts  in  the  interior, 
and  are  even  of  steel  construction  (Fig.  167). 

It  is  further  advised,  on  good  authority,  to  turn  horses  loose 
in  the  car,  even  if  but  one  or  two  are  to  go.  They  are  less  liable 
to  be  thro^Mi  than  if  tied,  ride  much  more  comfortably,  some  in- 
stinctively lying  do^\Ti  as  soon  as  they  enter  a  well-bedded  car, 
and  they  come  off  the  car  at  the  end  of  the  trip  in  much  better 
shape. 
304 


TRANSPORTATION 


305 


The  more  common  practice,  however,  is  to  cross  tie  and  even 
tie  from  above,  allowing  but  little  play.  It  usually  matters  not 
whether  the  horse  is  headed  or  backed  to  the  locomotive,  as  a 
car  rarely  arrives  in  the  same  direction  in  which  it  was  started, 


Fig.  166.— Express  horse  car  partitioned  into  stalls,  four  groups  of  four  stalls 
each  lengthwise  of  the  car. 

unless  on  a  short,  straight  run.  If  a  mixed  car  of  stock  is  shipped, 
necessitating  the  partitioning  of  the  car,  such  partitions  should 
be  very  substantial  in  both  material  and  construction.  Horses 
have  been  seriously  injured  an^  ji^rmanently  blemished  by  being 
thro^vQ  through  or  against  frail  or  makeshift  partitions. 
20 


306  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

Freight  tariffs  are  not  Tiniform  the  country  over,  but  the  fol- 
lowing one  is  fairly  typical : 

A  carload  is  hilled  at  a  minimum  of  20,000  pounds ;  single 
horses  or  less  than  a  carload  at  5000  pounds  for  one  mare  or 
gelding;  3000  pounds  for  each  additional  head.  Stallions  are 
rated  at  YOOO  pounds  straight,  whether  alone  or  in  a  mixed  car 
of  stock  other  than  horses,  although  a  stallion  shipped  in  a  full 
carload  of  horses  only  is  not  discriminated  against. 

Care  During  Shipment. — Shipments  of  horses  come  under 
the  federal  law  requiring  all  stock  to  he  unloaded,  fed,  and 
watered  every  twenty-eight  hours ;  this  time  may  he  extended  to 
thirty-six  hours  if  so  agreed  between  the  shipper  and  carrier 


Fig.  107. — Stock  car  for  shipping  horses. 

beforehand.  Less  than  a  carload,  accompanied  by  an  attendant 
who  feeds  and  waters  them,  are  not  subject  to  this  law.  Most 
carloads  of  horses  are  shipped  unattended,  as  a  man  can  do  little 
to  either  prevent  or  overcome  trouble  in  the  car  en  route. 

Horses  are  best  prepared  for  shipment  by  a  good  fill  of  tim- 
otliy  hay  and  only  a  moderate  ration  of  soft  feed.  They  require 
little  if  any  feed  en  route  within  a  twenty-eight-hour  limit,  a 
small  amount  of  hay  to  pick  over  being  sufiicient.  The  Penn- 
sylvania Railroad  is  eliminating  the  hay  racks  from  its  latest 
featured  stock  car,  on  the  ground  that  hay  is  unnecessary  with 
the  operation  of  the  twenty-eight-hour  unloading  law,  that  much 
of  it  is  usually  wasted,  and  that  the  racks  take  up  valuable  head 
room  and,  becoming  loose  or  broken,  as  they  frequently  do,  are  a 
constant  source  of  danger  to  the  heads  and  eyes  of  horses. 


TRANSPORTATION 


307 


Race  and  show  horses  are  frequently  covered  from  tip  to  toe, 
hoods,  blankets,  and  bandages  being  provided  to  protect  them 
from  possible  draughts.  Unless  accustomed  to  much  clothing, 
horses  so  covered  are  liable  to  become  overheated  and  not  ship 
so  well  as  others  that  are  but  lightly  blanketed  or  perhaps  not 
covered  at  all.  The  closeness  of  the  quarters  insures  against  a 
very  low  temperature  if  there  are  many  horses  in  tlie  car.  Band- 
ages rolled  low  around  the  coronets  to  protect  from  tramping, 


Fig.  168. — Just  off  the  car  from  the  West. 


pads  about  the  eyes  and  poll,  and  knee  pads  are  often  provided 
as  an  extra  precaution. 

Injury  During  Shipment. — The  chief  injury  to  horses  in 
transit  consists  of  bruises  at  the  point  of  the  hocks.  There  is 
little  difficulty  occasioned  by  horses  getting  down  in  the  car,  and 
if  they  dp  get  down  tliey  usually  experience  little  trouble  in 
getting  up  on  their  feet  again  unless  old  or  crippled,  as  is  often 
the  case  in  the  second-hand  horse  trade. 

The  well-nigh  inevitable  influenza  or  shipping  fever,  so-called, 
could  probably  be  controlled  to  a  certain  extent  if  thorough  dis- 
infection of  cars  were  insisted  upon. 


308  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

Some  liigli-stnuig,  ncn'ous  horses  are  subject  to  car  fits,  as 
they  are  called,  a  form  of  hysteria  resulting  from  the  excitement 
and  perhaps  the  cramped  position  which  causes  extreme  dis- 
comforts They  will  sometimes  rear,  pitch,  and  throw  themselves 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  it  necessary  to  stop  the  train  and 
remove  them  from  the  car  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  doing 
serious  damage  to  themselves  or  mates.  ]\Iuch  travel  will  some- 
times enable  them  to  overcome  tlie  dithculty,  while  in  other  cases 
it  simply  aggravates  their  condition  (Fig.  168). 

REVIEW 

1.  When  are  lioi-ses  shipped  by  express  and  when  by  freight? 

2.  Describe  the  express  cars  furnished  to  hoi-se  shippei-s. 

3.  AVhat  type  of  freiji'ht  cars  are  best  for  hoi-se  shipments  and  why? 

4.  Should  horses  be  tied  or  turned  loose  during  shipment? 

5.  How  are  horses  best  prepared  and  cai*ed  for  during  shipment? 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  MULE 

The  importance  of  the  mule  as  a  factor  in  American  agri- 
culture justifies  a  consideration  of  his  production  and  use  in  a 
general  discussion  of  Horse  Husbandry. 

The  mule  conforms  to  the  definition  of  a  hybrid  in  that  his 
sire  is  of  one  species,  Equus  asinus,  and  his  dam  is  of  another 
species,  Equus  caballus,  the  common  ancestor  within  the  genus 
being  so  remote  as  to  render  the  hybrids  sterile. 

Mule  breeding  was  practiced  by  the  ancients,  and  in  some 
countries  they  are  depended  upon  almost  altogether  for  work. 
The  inverse  cross,  which  produces  a  hinny,  is  more  difficult  to 
accomplish,  the  hybrid  being  smaller  and  less  useful  as  a  rule, 
although  it  is  contended  by  some  that  hinnies  cannot  be  distin- 
guished from  mules. 

Mules  have  always  been  bred  most  extensively  in  semi-tropical 
regions,  the  line  being  quite  shar[)ly  drawn  between  the  produc- 
tion of  mules  and  draft  horses. 

Classes  of  Mules. — An  extended  classification  of  mules  is 
given,  but  they  are  all  bred  for  essentially  two  purposes, — work  in 
the  fields  and  in  the  mines.  Fann  or  plantation  mules,  or  sugar 
and  cotton  mules,  as  the  market  classes  tliem,  are  bred  chiefly 
from  well-bred  mares  of  so-called  hot  blood  and  are  therefore 
rangy,  fine,  and  snappy  movers.  The  Southerner  regards  it  as 
no  desecration  to  mate  good  saddle  or  trotting  bred  mares  with 
a  jack,  and  some  extremely  breedy  mules  are  the  result  (Fig. 
109). 

The  mine  demand,  which  is  of  necessity  for  a  draftier,  bigger 
lK>ned  mule  (Fig.  170),  is  met  by  mating  the  smaller,  smoother 
class  of  draft  mares  with  big-boned  jacks.  Mine  mules  work 
l)oth  on  the  surface  and  down  in  the  mines.  The  latter  range 
in  height  according  to  the  veins  in  which  they  are  to  work.  The 
little  12-hand  pitters  are  much  in  demand  and  bring  a  price  out 
of  proportion  to  their  size. 

309 


310 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


As  Draft  Animals. — Mules  are  not  a  success  for  heavy  draft 
work  on  city  streets,  as  tbey  do  not  have  either  the  weight  or  cir- 
cumference of  foot  to  give  them  a  good  hold  on  pavements.  Fur- 
thermore, it  is  the  experience  of  teamsters  that  a  mule  pulls  by 
a  direct  forward  push  instead  of  by  the  lift  with  which  draft 
horses  start  their  load.  This,  too,  is  conducive  to  slipping. 
Some  light  pairs  of  mules  do  well  in  light  delivery  ser^^ice,  and 
their  feet  ^Hthstand  the  battering  of  the  jDavements  especially  welt 


I  !    ''. — Representing  the  Kent  1  -     i    Imli't  imili- ixcclltuir.   Their  size,  rangy, 

smooth  form,  quality,  breediness,  and  temperament  are  such  as  are  reciuired  of  the  highest 
class  sugar  mule. 


on  account  of  a  very  thick,  strong  wall  and  sole,  and  their  2>eculiar 
shape,  which  prevents  both  a  contraction  of  heels  and  dropping 
of  sole. 

The  Mule's  Advantages. — The  mule  has  some  distinct  ad- 
vantages over  the  horse  for  some  kinds  of  work.  They  may  be 
enumerated  as  follows : 

He  stands  hot  weather  better  and  is  less  susceptible  to  diges- 
tive disorders  and  founder,  it  being  customary  to  feed  mules  from 
troughs,  where  they  may  take  tlieir  fill,  like  cattle.  A  mule 
takes  better  care  of  himself  in  the  hands  of  an  incompetent  driver 


THE  MULE 


311 


than  a  liorse  does,  accepting  his  lot  more  philosophically,  being 
naturally  more  of  a  plodder  and  therefore  more  steady  and  less 
fretful. 

On  account  of  the  peculiar  fonn  and  structure  of  the  mule's 
foot,  he  is  less  subject  to  foot  lameness  and  the  ordinary  injurious 
effects  of  shoeing  than  is  the  horse,  which  is  more  connnonly 
incapacitated  for  work  on  this  account  than  any  other.     Lame- 


Fio.  170.- 


-A  rugged  pair  of  more  drafty  form  and  ample  bone,  representative  of  the  best 
grade  sought  for  mine  use. 


ness  in  a  mule  is  most  often  due  to  spavins  and  ringbones,  but  he 
will  get  along  with  a  spavin  which  would  practically  put  a  horse 
out  of  business.  Mules  are  almost  invariably  good  walkers. 
Stabling  requirements  for  mules  are  much  less  elaborate  than  for 
horses,  double  stalls,  with  or  without  bales,  or  even  pens  in  which 
a  number  are  turned  loose,  being  all  that  is  needed.  Age  and 
infirmities  seem  to  count  less  against  mules,  and  as  a  rule  an  old 
or  second-hand  pair  will  outsell  horses  of  equal  merit. 


312 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


Mules  are  subject  to  a  general  prejudice  which  militates 
against  them  in  all  but  limited  parts  of  this  country,  and  on 
account  of  this  it  is  difficult  to  secure  competent  drivers  for  them. 

The  mule  is  usually  more  sagacious  than  the  horse,  and  is 
scarcely  less  responsive  to  proper  treatment,  yet  the  idea  prevails 
that  whatever  service  is  gotten  out  of  him  must  be  knocked  out, 
the  black-snake  whip  and  gag  bit  being  considered  essential  fea- 
tures of  mule  team  appointments. 


Fig.   171. — A  Kentucky  jack  of  the  aize,  aubaiauv^ 


iiiuie    bfcediug. 


Mare  mules  outsell  horse  mules  on  account  of  their  smoother 
turned  bodies  and  the  fact  that  they  are  more  easily  kept  in 
condition. 

The  Jack. — Jack  stock  breeders  distinguish  between  the  type 
of  jack  best  adapted  to  mating  with  jennies  for  the  production 
of  jack  breeding  stock  and  the  stamp  of  jack  best  suited  to  mating 
with  mares  for  the  production  of  mule  hybrids. 

The  Standard  of  Excellence, — The  jack  most  desired  for 


THE  MULE 


313 


mule  breeding  is  at  least  16  hands  high.  The  more  weight  and 
substance  he  has  the  better.  He  is  long  and  wide  in  form,  having 
good-sized,  wTll-shaped  head  and  ears,  straight  legs  of  ample 
bone,  and  well-shaped  feet  of  good  size  and  texture  (Fig.  171). 
Black  with  light  points  is  the  color  most  favored,  not  only  for 
api^earance  sake,  but  because  the  get  of  such  a  jack  out  of  mares 
of 'any  or  all  colors  have  proven  most  uniformly  of  good  colors. 
He  should  also  be  stylish. 

The  native  jack,  so-called,  although  but  a  few  generations 
removed  from  imported  stock,  has  the  reputation  of  getting  a 
higher  class  of  mules  than  the  imported  jacks  themselves.  Of 
the  imjiorted  breeds,  the  Catalonian,  Poitou,  Maltese,  Andalu- 
sian,  Majorcan  and  Italian,  the  former  is  most  popular. 


Fig.  172. — The  right  stamp  of  mares  as  attested  by  their  produce. 

The  Mare. — The  mule  is  believed  to  take  after  the  sire  in  the 
matter  of  head,  ears,  bone,  and  foot,  while  its  stature  and  form  of 
body,  especially,  are  derived  chiefly  from  the  dam.  There  are 
many  exceptions  to  this  rule,  however.  Mares  of  good  size  and 
shape,  black,  bay,  brown,  or  chestnut  in  color,  and  with  a  dash  of 
hot  blood,  are  best  adapted  to  the  production  of  mules  (Fig.  172) . 

REVIEW 

1.  What  is  a  mule?  a  hinny? 

2.  What  are  the  two  general  classes  of  mules  and  how  is  each  produced  ? 

3.  What  can  be  said  in  favor  of  using  mules  instead  of  horses  for  farm  work? 

4.  What  type  and  breeding  of  jack  is  most  desired  for  breeding  mules  ? 

5.  What  sort  of  mares  make  the  most  satisfactory  dams  of  mules  ? 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  MOTOR  AS  A  FACTOR 

The  force  of  the  foregoing  statements  concerning  the  profit- 
able production  and  use  of  horses  will  be  influenced  by  one's 
conception  of  the  future  status  of  the  horse.  To  this  end  the 
motor  must  be  reckoned  with.  At  no  time  in  history  has  the 
horse  been  subjected  to  such  keen  competition  for  place  and  favor 
as  at  the  present. 

The  motor  is  such  an  important  factor  as  to  require  considera- 
tion in  any  discussion  of  equine  affairs.  The  view-point,  how- 
ever, should  be  fair  and  logical,  not  obscured  by  such  sentiment 
or  entliusiasm  as  characterizes  a  partisan  review  of  either  side 
of  the  question.  There  are  ardent  motorists  who  would  have  the 
horse  annihilated  for  all  time,  while  some  riders  and  drivers 
would  legislate  the  same  end  for  all  motordom;  yet  neither  of 
these  positions  is  warranted  by  the  facts. 

Other  Factors. — History  is  but  repeating  itself,  apparently, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  invention  of  gunpowder ;  the  advent  of  canals 
and,  later,  railroads ;  tlie  adoption  of  the  cable  and  the  trolley  on 
street  railways ;  and  the  past  popularity  of  the  bicycle ;  each  of 
which  in  turn  threatened  to  supplant  horses  in  their  different 
fields. 

Advantages  of  the  Motor. — An  analysis  of  the  situation  at 
present  concedes  to  the  motor  three  distinct  advantages  over  the 
horse:  Speed,  endurance,  especially  in  hot  weather,  and  vogue. 
Whenever  the  miles  covered  or  the  time  consumed  is  the  sole 
consideration  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  motor  will  be 
shown  the  preference.  So  it  is  in  the  case  of  the  doctor  or  the 
sales  solicitor,  men  whose  earning  capacity  is  limited  by  the 
facility  with  which  they  can  get  about;  likewise  the  travelling 
public  and  society  folk  have  become  so  accustomed  to  a  minimum 
time  allowance  for  making  trains  or  keeping  engagements  that 
they  could  hardly  be  expected  to  dispense  with  the  taxicab  or 
limousine.  Suburban  deliveries  are  made  much  more  expedi- 
314 


THE  MOTOR  AS  A  FACTOR  315 

tiously  by  auto  when  tliej  entail  long,  straight-awaj  runs  with 
few  stops ;  and  die  moving  of  large  loads  to  a  distant  distributing 
point  can  be  more  quickly  and  cheaply  done  by  the  big  motor 
trucks  even  than  by  railroad  freight. 

Advantages  of  the  Horse. — For  the  about-town  delivery  of 
many  small  parcels,  each  one  to  a  different  house,  requiring 
almost  continuous  starts  and  stops,  with  frequent  runs  in  and  out 
of  short  streets,  the  auto  deliveries  are  more  costly  and  less  effi- 
cient. Horses  have  their  routes,  and  lend  their  assistance  in 
anticipating  stops  and  starts  or  even  turning  round  themselves 
and  waiting  round  the  comer  while  their  driver  resorts  to  a  short 
cut  across  lots. 

^ATierever  much  time  is  spent  in  standing  or  waiting  the  ad- 
vantage is  with  the  horse-dra^vn  vehicle  on  account  of  the  smaller 
investment  ^presented  and  the  less  depreciation  involved. 

Cost  of  Feed  and  of  Gasoline. — Clever  motor  salesmen  have 
taken  advantage  of  the  abnormally  high  cost  of  horse  feeds  for 
the  past  few  years  in  their  calculations  of  the  relative  economy 
of  horse-drawn  and  motor  vehicles.  But  with  feed  inclining 
again  to  a  normal  level,  while  the  cost  of  gasoline  is  advancing 
at  such  a  rate  as  to  threaten  automatically  to  check  the  patronage 
of  the  motor,  unless  other  fuel  or  motive  power  is  resorted  to, 
there  is  little  weight  in  such  arguments. 

A  Motor  Age — There  is  every  evidence  of  this  being  a  motor 
age ;  the  motor  idea  is  conspicuous  in  our  mode  of  dress ;  it  pre- 
dominates in  our  conversation.  Whereas  the  small  boy  of  past 
generations  straddled  the  broomstick  or  harnessed  two  overturned 
chairs  and  played  horse,  he  now  turns  his  ingenuity  to  the  con- 
struction and  operation  of  racing  pushmobiles  of  the  latest  type 
and  full  equipment;  patrons  of  the  remnant  counters  demand 
that  the  goods  purchased  by  them  shall  be  delivered  by  auto,  in 
case  the  firm  is  so  derelict  as  to  still  retain  some  antiquated  speci- 
mens of  the  genus  Equus  in  their  delivery  service.  All  this  is 
fully  appreciated  by  those  engaged  in  the  business  of  catering  to 
public  patronage,  and  it  is  played  upon  in  every  possible  way 
by  the  auto  salesman. 

Vogue  gives  to  the  automobile,  however,  a  much  less  stable 
advantage  over  the  horse  than  does  its  greater  efficiency  in  long, 


316 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


fast  runs.  Popular  favor  is  self-limiting,  and  the  stronger  the 
wave  of  general  popularity  the  harder  the  brakes  will  set.  The 
pacemakers  of  fashion  are  the  ultra-exclusive  set;  a^  soon  as  a 
fad  which  thej  have  started  gains  sufficient  momentum  to  reach 
the  butcher,  the  baker,  and  so  on,  it  is  considered  common  and  is 
dropped  by  the  very  ones  who  first  became  sponsors  for  it,  and 
their  example  is  invariably  followed  (Fig.  173).  The  remark- 
able increase  in  the  number  of  cars  used  each  season,  together 
with  the  great  variety  of  individuals  enlisting  in  the  ranks  of 


1 

1 

A 

i 

l« 

g 

^^^Bb^        %^t^''                                          r^^BBn^^^^g 

-■.Sl^ 

^.   I     . 

Fig.  173. 


-Park  horse  to  victoria,  correctly  appointed.    An  equipage  with  an  individuality 
which  can  never  become  common. 


the  motorists,  suggest  that  we  are  rapidly  approacliing  the  crest 
of  tlie  wave. 

The  horse  markets,  shows,  park  drives,  and  bridle  paths  offer 
substantial  evidence  that  the  horse  is  being  gradually  reinstated, 
not  in  his  former  capacity  perhaps,  because  the  automobile  has 
modified  uses  and  customs,  but  in  gTcater  favor  than  ever,  so 
far  as  some  types  are  concerned.  If  the  activities  of  the'  motor 
road  monopolists  were  properly  regulated,  both  as  to  the  con- 
struction and  use  of  roads,  a  preference  for  the  horse  would  be 
shown  by  many  drivers  who  have  been  forced  off  the  road  by  fear 
of  fallen  horses  and  collisions. 


THE  MOTOR  AS  A  FACTOR  317 

With  the  present  vogue  abated,  the  motor  will  become,  no 
doubt,  a  cold  business  proposition,  which  facilitates  affairs  in 
such  a  multitude  of  ways  as  to  be  indispensable,  like  the  tele- 
phone. 

Supplements  to  the  Horse  in  Service The  roadster    the 

touring  car,  and  the  limousine  have  all  added  so  much  to  our 
possibilities  in  their  respective  fields  that  they  must  be  included 
in  every  completely  equipped  establishment,  but  there  is  nothing 
to  render  them  incompatible  with  the  horse  in  a  kindred  relation- 
ship. The  commercial  truck,  also,  performs  so  many  lines  of 
service  so  much  more  acceptably  than  the.  horse>  ever  can,  that 
its  supremacy  within  limits  cannot  be  denied.  Yet  in  this  the 
motor  is  supplementing,  not  supplanting,  the  horse  in  service. 

Demand  for  Saddle  Horses. — It  may  seem  like  overdrawn 
optimism  to  attribute  to  the  automobile  any  advantages  accruing 
to  the  horse,  but  such  is  not  difficult  of  demonstration.  The 
motor  car  has  been  a  most  important  factor  in  the  prevalent 
countiy  life  movement.  Distances  are  so  contracted  by  its  use  as 
to  place  the  country  within  easy  access  of  many  who  could  not 
otherwise  enjoy  it.  The  country  without  a,  horse  is  like  a  library 
without  books.  Fox  limiting  is  becoming  the  sport  of  a  greater 
number,  of  people  in  this  country  each  season,  partly,  at  least,  on 
account  of  the  rapid  transit  facilities  offered  by  the  automobiles. 

There  are  more  people  riding  to-day  on  doctors'  pre- 
scriptions than  ever  before.  The  convenience  of  the  auto  has 
removed  the  necessity  for  even  a  physiological  amount  of  exer- 
cise, which  must  be  compensated  for  in  some  other  Avay.  Thus, 
while  no  doubt  depi-essing  the  market  for  coach  and  road  horses, 
the  automobile  has  furaished  a  boom  to  the  saddle  horse  trade. 

There  is  a  sentimental  side  to  the  subject  under  discussion. 
Motor  possibilities  have  left  horses,  except  those  in  the  commer- 
cial field,  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  people  who  want  them  because 
they  are  horses,  with  the  result  that  they  are  in  their  highest 
estate,  a  condition  most  satisfactory  to  them  and  most  gratifying 
to  those  interested  in  their  well-being  (Fig.  174).  ^o  one  who 
cares  for  horses  regrets  either  the  substitution  of  the  taxicab  for 
the  hoi-se-drawn  hansom  or  four-wheeler,  nor  the  transference  of 
the  ordinary  livery  patronage  to  the  garage.    He  w^ho  rides  only 


318 


THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 


for  the  thrill  would  confer  a  favor  on  horse  kind  by  devoting 
himself  to  aeronautics. 

Breeding  of  Better  Horses. — Finally  there  is  an  economic 
significance  to  tlie  whole  situation.  Competition  stimulates  to 
best  efforts.  I^ow  the  consumers  of  horses  are  discriminating; 
demand  is  for  horses  of  the  highest  type.  It  has  been  observed 
that  after  an  experience  in  buying  and  maintaining  automobiles 


Fig.  174. — Motor  advantages  enjoyed  by  the  horse. 

in  service  one  becomes  more  appreciative  of  horse  values  and 
more  liberal  in  his  allowance  for  cost.  The  result  Avill  be  more 
intelligent  and  systematic  breeding  for  a  definite  purj^ose,  with 
consequently  less  failures,  and,  finally,  a  more  liberal  profit  to  him 
who  meets  the  demand  of  those  who  can  afford  to  discriminate 
and  pay  well  for  what  they  require. 

Costs  of  Delivery  With  Horses  and  Trucks. — Figures  taken 
from  the  books  of  Wilson  &  Co.  show  that  it  cost  in  the  month  of 
March  25  cents  per  cwt.  to  deliver  products  by  use  of  two-ton 
trucks,  13.3  cents  per  cwt.  by  use  of  one-horse  wagons,  7.9  cents 


THE  MOTOR  AS  A  FACTOR  319 

per  cwt.  by  use  of  two-horse  wagons,  and  5.9  cents  by  use  of 
four-horse  wagons.  The  information  from  which  these  costs  are 
figured  is  embodied  in  the  following  tables : 

Wagon  Report. 

Single              Double  4-Horse 

Wagon             Wagon  Wagon 

Days  in  service  26                  26  26 

Hours   in   service        325            3261/2  337 

Pounds   hauled    132,007         274,000  517,500 

Miles  travelled   599                297  483 

Loads ■ 56                  62  53 

Average  pounds  per  load 2,357             4,418  9,764 

Average  miles  per  trip    10.6                 4.8  9.1 

Average  stop  per  trip   10.9                  1.6  1.4 

Stops   614                101  77 

Expense. 

Interest,   6   per   cent $1.50             $2.25  $4.24 

Depreciation 4.42               6.80  13.10 

Fire   insurance    .28                 .56  .84 

Liability   insurance    1.68               3.36  5.00 

Labor,  driver  and  helper    138.13            146.93  171.87 

Stable   help    .2.00               4.00  8.00 

Oats     9.36             18.72  37.40 

Hay   7.35             14.79  29.39 

Straw    96                1.92  3.84 

Shoes     3.40               6.80  13.60 

Medicine     20                 .40  .80 

Grease .20                 .40  .80 

Estimated  repairs  and  overhauling 5.00               6.15  9.61 

License  and  tools   1.80               3.60  5.40 

Total  expense    $176.28         $216.68  $303.89 

Average  cost  per  cwt.  hauled    $.133             $.079  $.059 

Truck  Report. 

Days  operated  24 

Hours  operated   27 1  ^/^ 

Pounds  hauled    , 118,978 

Mileage     1,162 

Loads    48 

Average  pounds  per  load   2,478 

Average  miles  per  trip    24 

Average  miles  per  gallon  gasoline  5 

Average  stops  per  trip   9 


320  THE  HORSE  IN  SERVICE 

Expense. 

License  for  month    $  2.76 

^Mechanic's  labor  25.25 

Parts   44.03 

Interest     8.10 

Depreciation    30.00 

Insurance    0.72 

Driver's  labor 125.09 

Garage  expense  9.24 

Gasoline    44.48 

Oil    4.30 

Grease .75 

Alcohol  glycerine   .98' 

Total  expense    $302.36 

Average  cost  per  owt.  hauled   $         .25 

Average  cost  per  mile .25 

The  trucks  referred  to  are  of  two-ton  capacity.  They  are 
geared  at  30  miles  an  hour.  They  cost  $2,200  each.  Sixteen  of 
them  are  used  to  deliver  packing-house  products  in  the  Chicago 
suburbs  bounded  by  Waukegan,  West  Chicago  and  Gary.  They 
leave  the  Wilson  plant  at  6  a.m.^  and  get  back  at  4  p.m.  They 
are  out  on  the  long  drive  only  three  days  a  week.  One  extra 
truck  is  used  for  replacement  purposes.  It  replaces  a  different 
truck  every  day,  so  that  one  tnick  is  overhauled  every  1(3  days. 
This  system  is  found  to  lengthen  the  truck's  life  by  2  years.  Tlie 
cost  of  delivery  will  be  5  cents  per  ewt.  higher  this  year  than 
a  year  ago,  because  the  trucks  are  a  year  older  and  require  more 
repairs,  tires,  and  so  on. 

The  Wilson  delivery  teams  weigh  from  3^200  to  3,500 
pounds.  They  jouniey  to  the  loop  with  more  than  2  tons  to 
the  load.  They  may  be  loaded  up  to  41/0  tons  or  more  than  twice 
as  much  as  the  trucks  will  carry.  An  overloaded  truck  soon 
goes  to  pieces ;  an  overloaded  team  will  struggle  along  for  awhile 
and  the  owner  is  out  only  an  extra  handful  of  oats.  A  single 
horse  will  haul  easily  4,000  pounds,  which  is  the  capacity  load 
for  one  of  the  trucks  in  question. 

The  average  cost  of  teams  is  about  $500.  A  double  wagon 
costs  $375  aud  harness  about  $95.     The  highest-priced  work 


THE  MOTOR  AS  A  FACTOR  321 

horse  in  the  Wilson  stables  cost  $28Y.  As  an  instance  of  how 
depreciation  works  ont  in  the  stables,  the  South  Chicago  branch 
house  took  out  a  team  8  years  ago  at  $540.  Recently  the  team 
was  sent  back  and  the  branch  house  manager  thought  enough  of 
it  to  bill  the  horses  back  at  $540  ! 

The  Avage  scale  for  truck  chauffeurs  is  46%  cents  per  hour. 
Drivers  of  four-horse  teams  receive  50  cents  an  hour,  drivers  of 
two  horses  45  cents,  and  drivers  of  single  horses  421A  cents. 
A  horse  driver  is  allowed  30  minutes  to  clean  his  horse  before 
starting  out.  *     *     * 

The  cost  for  incidental  help  to  keep  equipment  in  shape  is  of 
course  much  higher  with  the  trucks  than  with  the  horses.  For 
23  pieces  of  auto  equipment  four  mechanics  and  six  helpers  must 
be  maintained.  For  92  horses  and  40  wagons  three  barn  men 
and  two  wagon  washes  are  required. 

REVIEW 

1.  What  other  factors  have  in  the  past  threatened  to  supplant  the  horse 

as  in  the  present  case  of  the  motor? 

2.  What  are  the  undisputed  advantages  of  the  motor  car  in  commercial 

service  ? 

3.  What   advantages  must   be   conceded  to  the   hoi-se  in   commercial 

service  ? 

4.  Why  may  the  present  vogue  of  the  automobile  be  expected  to  abate  ? 

5.  What  classes  of  horses  have  felt  most  keenly  the  competition  mth 

the  motor  car? 

6.  What  classes  owe  their  increased  demand  in  part,  at  least,  to  the 

motor  car? 

7.  How  has  the  adoption  of  the  motor  vehicle  improved  the  welfare  of 

some  horses? 

8.  Will  the  motor  vehicle  supplant  or  supplement  the  hoi-se  in  sei-vice  ? 

9.  What  will  be  its  probable  effect  on  the  horse  breeding  industry? 
10.  To  what  extent  has  the  common  use  of  the  motor  affected  the  horee 

maa-ket? 


INDEX 


Accessories  to  bit,  275 

blinds,  279 

bristle  burr,  280 

chin  strap,  280 

coupling  rein,  277 

martingale,  279 

nose  band,  280 

overdraw  check,  275 

side  or  bearing  rein,  275 

whip,  280 

word,  280 
Age,  141 

dentition  of  horses,  152 

determination  of,  150 

importance  of,  151 

mouth  at  different  ages,  154-173 

structure  of  tooth,  153 
Alfalfa,  240 
American  Breeds,  112-132 

native  American  horses,  133 
American  Carriage  Horse,  government 

stud  of,  110 
American  Saddle  horse,  127 

characteristics  of,  130 

color  of,  131 

evolution  of,  127 

foundation  stock  of,  128 

gaits  of,  131 

influence  of  Thoroughbred  on,  128 

producing  mares  of,  130 

prominent  sires  of,  130 

uses  of,  131 
Arabian,  strains  of  color  of,  73 
Artificial  impregnation,  212 

insemination,  214 
Atavism,  183 
Auctioneers,  299 

responsibility  of,  299 
Axles,  288 

bearings,  288 

conical,  288  - 


Axles,  cylindrical,  288 

pitched,  288 
Azaturia,  245 

Bad  habits,  268 

Barb,  75 

Bariey,  237 

Base  of  support,  effect  of  rapidity  of 

stride  on,  8 
Bedding,  250 

corn  stover,  251 

peat  moss,  251 

purposes  of,  250 

sawdust,  251 

shavings,  251 

straw,  251 
Belgian,  90 

American  type  of,  91 

origin  of,  91 

use  of  sires,  92 
Bitless  bridle,  274 
Bits,  271 

classification  of,  273 

fit  and  adjustment  of,  275 

structures  with  which  in  contact, 
272 

use  of,  272 
Blinds  or  winkers,  279 

open  bridle,  279 
Bourbon  King,  pedigree  of,  129 
Bran,  236 

mash,  preparation  of,  236 
Breeding,  25,  179,  317 

a  side  issue  to  general  farming,  179 

brothers  in  blood,  184 

community  system,  192 

cross-breeding,  182 

dams,  184 

ideals    geographically    different, 
179 

323 


324 


INDEX 


Breeding,  inbreeding,  182 
investment  required,  179 
line  breeding,  182 
spring  or  fall  foaling,  206 
stud,  192 
top  cross,  184 

Breeds  of  horses,  70 
classification  of,  83 
definition  of  best  breed,  70 
inherent  qualities  of,  71 
study  of  foundation  stock,  71 

Bridles,  295 

classes  of,  295 
uses  of,  295 

Bristle  burr,  280 

British  breeds,  history  of,  93-100 

Brothers  in  blood,  184 

Canada  field  peas,  237 
Capacity  for  work,  221 

daily  capacity,  221 

horse  power,  221 

pulling  capacity,  222 

weight  carrying  capacity,  222 
Care  of  feet,  260 

of  legs,  260 
Carrots,  242 
Celtic  pony,  73 
Centre  of  gravity,  7 

displacement  of,  8 

location  of,  7 

stability  of,  8 
Cereal  hay,  241 
Charles  Kent  mare,  116 
Chin  strap,  286 
Chunk,  51 

Classes,  origin  of,  299 
Classes  of  horses,  45 

basis  of  distinctions,  45 

chart  of,  49 

differentiation  from  types,  49 
Cleveland  Bay,  108 
Clipping,  264 

complete  clipping,  265 

fashion,  264 

partial  cUpping,  265 


Clipping,  trimming,  264 
Clothing,  266 

bandage,  265 

blanket,  265 

hood,  265 
Clover,  239 
Clydesdale,  94 

characteristics  of,  94 

origin  of,  94 

quality  of  bone  of,  95 

Scotchman's  standard,  94 
Coach  Horse,  53 
Cob,  55 
Colic,  245 
Collar,  225 

Dutch  or  breast,  225 

fit  of,  225 
Color,  45 

bay,  46 

black,  47 

black  points,  48 

brown,  47 

chestnut,  47 

classification  of,  46 

cream,  48 

dun,  48 

gray,  47 

importance  of,  46 

leprous  spots,  49 

mouse,  48 

odd  markings,  49 

piebald,  48 

roan,  48 

skewbald,  48 

tiger  spots,  49 

white  markings,  48 
Combination  horse,  65 
Common  stock,  origin  of,  72 
Community  system,  192 

advantages  of,  192 
Concentrates,  235 
Condition,  45,  141,  228 

conditioning,  229 

degree  and  time  involved,  229 

fat  and  element  of,  228 

importance  of,  228 


INDEX 


325 


Condition,  indication  of,  228 

the  result  of,  228 
Conformation,  10,  23,  141 
regions  of,  11 
sti:.dy  of,  10 
arms,  12 
back,  13 
body,  13 
canons,  12-14 
chest,  13 
croup,  13 
ears,  10 
eyes,  10 
feet,  12-14 
fetlocks,  12-14 
forearms,  12 
forehand,  12 
forehead,  10 
gaskins,  13 
head,  10 
hindquarters,  13 
hips,  13 
hocks,  13 
knees,  12 
loin,  13 
muzzle,  10 
neck,  10 
pasterns,  12-14 
ribs,  13 
shoulders,  12 
stifles,  13 
tail,  13 
thighs,  13 
withers,  12 
Constitution,  141 
Corn,  235 

com  meal,  236 
cracked,  236 
ear  corn,  236 
opposition  to,  236 
pulled  com,  241 
shelled,  236 
stover,  241 
supplement,  236 
Cottonseed  meal,  235,  237 
Coupling,  277 


Coupling  rein,  277 
Cow  pea  hay,  240 
puncher,  284 
Crib  biting,  266 
Cross-breeding,  182 
advantages  of,  183 
climatic  out-cross,  183 
methods,  182 
purposes,  182 
results,  183 
Cross-firing,  31 
Curb,  149 
bit,  273 

Buxton,  274 
curb  chain,  273-275 
elbow,  274 
Liverpool,  274 
operation  of,  273 
Pelham,  274 
port  in,  274 
principle  of,  273 

Dealers,  298 

auctioneers,  299 
conditions  of  sale,  298,  299 
knowledge  of,  298 
private  sales,  300 
Denmark,  128 
Dexter,  115 
Direction  of  leg  and  form  of  foot,  24 

relation  of  deviations  in,  25 
Draft  breeds,  84-100 
type,  35 
bone,  of,  36 
class,  49 
form  of,  35 
height  of,  50 
quality  in,  37 
score  card,  142 
temperament,  37 
way  of  going  of,  37 
Dried  brewers'  grains,  237 
Driving,  282 
reins,  283 
rudiments  of,  282 
Dwelling,  31 


326 


INDEX 


Equitation,  269 

control  of  horses,  269 
horsemanship,  269 
mental  limitations,  269 

Equus  celticus,  133 

Ewart,  Professor,  researches  of,  72 

Expresser,  52 

Fecundity,  182 
Feeder,  52 
Feeding  horses,  231 

an  art,  231 

concentrates,  234 

feed,  how  used,  232 

methods  of,  244 

nutritive  requirements,  234 

omission  of  noon,  244 

rations,  233 

regularity  of,  244 

research  concerning,  231 

roughage,  234 

succulence,  234 

systems  of,  232 

time  of,  244 

types  of  feed,  234 
Fences,  193 

''Fine"  harness  horse,  66 
Flemish  horse,  71 
Foal,  202 

bitting  of,  210 

care  of  feet  of,  207 

deception  concerning  powers  of, 
210 

education  of,  209 

feeding,  management  in,  204 

halter-breaking,  209 

handling  of,  208 

impaction  in,  202 

importance  of  education  of,  211 

navel  infection  in,  203 

tj-ing  up,  209 

weaning  of,  206 
Forelegs,  3 

direction  of,  12 

function  of,  3 
Forging,  30 


Form,  45,  141,  280 
definition  of,  281 
importance  of,  281 
French  Coach,  103 

as  a  breeder,  105 
color  of,  105 
correct  type,  105 
demi  sang,  104 
origin  of,  103 
types  of,  105 
draft  breeds,  84 
Ardennaise,  84 
Boulognaise,  84 
Breton,  84 
Xivernais,  84 

Gaines'  Denmark,  128 

Gaited    saddle    horse,    requirements 

of,  59 
Gaits,  17 

amble,  18 

canter,  20 

fox  trot,  23 

gallop,  19 

jump,  20 

pace,  18 

rack,  18 

running  walk,  23 

stepping  pace,  23 

traverse,  23 

trot,  17 

walk,  17 
General  appearance,  141 
George  Wilkes,  115 

sons  of,  116 
German  Coach,  106 
color  of,  106 
influence  of,  107 
origin  of,  106 
type  of,  106 
Gloves,  283 

fit  of,  283 

use  of,  283 
Grade,  184 

grade  stallion,  190 

grading  up,  184 


INDEX 


327 


Grade,  high,  184 
Green  Mountain  Maid,  119 
Grooming,  259 
stallion,  198 

Hack,  59 

park,  59 

road,  59 
Hackney,  101 

color  of,  102 

derivation  of  name,  101 

description  of,  102 

history  of,  101 

ponies,  137 

breeding  of,  137 
show  ponies,  137 

popularity  of,  102 

registration  of,  103 
Hals,  117 

Halter  pulling,  268 
Hambletonian  10,  114 

dam  of,  116 

sons  of,  116 
Hands,  270,  271 

position  of,  282 
Harness,  293 

classes  of,  293 
Hay,  246 

chaffing  of,  246 

cutting  of,  246 

moistening  of,  246 
Heavy  harness  breeds,  101-112 
division,  52 
score  card,  144 
suggestiveness  of  term,  52 
Height,  45 
Heredity,  25,  180 

germ  plasm,  181 

law  of  ancestral  inheritance,  180 

transmission      from       ancestors 
through  parents,  181 
High  School  horse,  285 
Hind  legs,  3 

direction  of,  14 

function  of,  3 
History  of  horse  in  service,  219 


History  of  horse  in  the  feral  state,  220 

man's  obhgation  to,  220 

under  domestication,  221 
Hoof  dressings,  264 
Horse  in  service,  221 

application  of  power,  226 

capacity  for  work,  221 

economic  efficiency  of,  221 

factors  determining  severity  of, 
222 

work,  222 
Horsemanship,  280 

driving,  282 

form,  280 

riding,  282 
Horse's  mechanical  structure,  3 
How  to  buy  a  horse,  301 

buying  green  horses,  302 

company   plan  for  buying  stal- 
hon,  303 

employment  of  veterinarian,  302 

go-betweens,  302 
Hunter,  61 

classification  of,  64 

requirements  of,  61 

size  of,  62 
Hybridization,  183 

bovine  hybrids,  183 

equine  hybrids,  183 

Inbreeding,  182 

advantages  of,  182 

methods,  182 

purposes,  182 

results,  182 
Intelligence,  175 
Interfering,  30 

Jack,  312 

distinctions  in  type,  312 

imported  jacks,  313 

native  jacks,  313 

the  mare  for  mule  breeding,  313 

type  most  desired,  312 
Judging  horses,  139 

accuracy  and  rapidity  in,  139 


328 


INDEX 


Judging,  features  to  consider  in,  141 

law  of  correlation,  140 

system  in,  140 

what  is  involved  in,  139 
Jumper,  64 
Justin  Morgan,  123 

breeding  of,  123 

description  of,  125 

eons  of,  124 

Kicking,  267 

Legiunes,  239 
Light  harness  division,  56 
horse,  57 

pacers,  57 

road  horses,  57 

score  card,  145 

speed  horses,  57 

trotters,  57 
Line  breeding,  182 

advantages  of,  182 

methods,  182 

purposes,  182 

results,  182 
Linseed  or  oil  meal,  237 
Locomotion,  4 
Loggers,  51 

Mambrino,  117 

Manners,  45 

Mare,  191 

after  foaling,  202 

artificial  impregnation,  212 

attitude  of  owners,  191 

breeding  fillies,  204 

brood  mare,  198 

care  and  management  of,  199 

exercise  and  work,  201 

extremes  of  condition  in,  201 

feeding  of,  199-202 

foaling  time,  199 

ideal  conditions  for,  200 

importance  of,  198 

next  breeding,  204 

patronage  by  owners,  191 

potency  of,  212 


Mare,  relative  influence  of,  198 

selection  of,  198 

sterility  or  barrenness,  212 
Market  classes,  299 
origin  of,  299 
Markets,  297 

auctioneers,  299 

classes,  299 

consumers,  297 

dealers,  298 

prices,  298 

producer,  297 

sales,  299 

sales  ring  warranty,  300 

second-hand  horses,  298 

sex,  importance  of,  299 

values  determined  by,  297 
Martingale,  279 

ring,  279 

standing,  279 
Mechanical  analogy,  5 

appliances,  29 
bit,  29 

going  surface,  29 
hopples,  29 
shoes,  29 
weight,  29 
Messenger,  114 
Middlings,  237 
Molasses,  238 
"Monday  Morning  Disease,"  245 

azaturia,  245 
Mongrel  or  scrub,  184 
Morgan,  122 

as  a  breed,  122 

blood  of,  in  other  breeds,  124 

description  of,  125 

government  breeding  of,  126 
Morgan  Horse  Club,  126 
Motor,  314 

advantages  of,  314 

advantages  of  horse  over,  315 

age,  315 

breeding    horses,     influence    of 
motor  on,  317 

cost  of  feed  and  gasohne,  315 


INDEX 


329 


Motor,  demand  for  saddle  horses,  317 
draft  horses,  influence  of  motor 

on,  319 
importance  of,  314 
other  factors  influencing  demand 

for  horses,  314 
prices    of    horses,    influence    of 

motor  on,  318 
supplementing  horse  in  service, 

316 
vogue  of  motor,  315 
Mouths,  270,  271 
Mule,  309 

advantages  of,  310 
breeding  of,  309 
classes  of,  309 
importance  of,  309 
mare  mules,  312 
Muscular  action,  6 

Nick,  183 
Nose  band,  280 

Oat  straw,  241 
Oats,  235 

crushed,  245 
oat  straw,  241 
sheaf  oats,  241 
Oriental  horse,  72 

influence  of,  76 
Orloff,  108 
Overdraw  check,  275 
abuse  of,  275 
use  of,  275 

Paddling,  30 
Park  horse,  53 
Pasture,  242 
Pastures,  192 

limestone  in,  192 
Pedigree,  181 

certificate,  value  of,  185 

duplicate,  185 

eligibility  for  registration,  185 

short  pedigree,  190 

transfers,  184 

value  of  registration,  184 


Percheron,  84 

distinctive  features  of,  88 

early  service,  85 

foundation  of,  85 

importance  of,  90 

modification  of  type  of,  85 
Pilots,  117 
Pointing,  31 
Polo  ponies,  69 

Ponies  over  1 1-2,  not  exceeding  14-2, 
69 

under  46  inches,  69 
Pony  breeds,  133-139 

division,  66 

classification  of,  66 
Pounding,  31 
Prepotency,  182 

definition  of,  182 

determined  by,  182 
Principles  of  breeding,  180 

definition  of  breeding,  180 

heredity,  180 

law  of  ancestral  inheritance,  180 

variation,  180 
Private  sales,  300 
Pulled  corn,  241 
Pure-bred,  184-185,  189 

Quality,  45,  141 

Race  horse,  57 

runner,  59 

hind  leg  of,  59 
Raising  horses,  213 
Ration,  245 

amount  of,  245 

character  of,  245 

preparation  of,  245 

sudden  changes  in,  246 

variety  in,  246 
Reins,  282 

fingering  of,  282 

grip  of,  282 

take-up  of,  282 
Reversion,  183 


330 


INDEX 


Rex  McDonald,  pedigree  of,  129 
Ridgeway,  Professor,  researches  of,  72 
Riding,  283 

curb  rein,  283 

holding  reins,  283 

open  unbuckled  reins,  284 

plain  snaffle  bridle,  283 

single  curb  rein,  284 

snaffle  rein,  283 
Rolling,  31 
Roughage,  239 
Runabout,  54 
Rye,  238 

Saddle,  293 

cow  or  Texas  saddle,  295 

seat,  295 
early  use  of,  293 

types  of,  293 
English  saddle,  293 

seat,  293 
horse,  317 
division,  57 

classification  of,  60 
height,  60 
score  card,  147 
weight,  60 
McClellan  saddle,  294 

seat,  294 
type,  42 
form  of,  44 
performance  of,  44 
way  of  going  of,  44 
weight  carrying,  43 
Sales  ring  warranty,  300 
at  the  halter,  300 
serviceably  sound,  300 
sound,  300 

sound  to  wind  and  work,  300 
with  all  faults,  300 
worker  only,  300 
Salt,  243 

necessity  for,  243 
provision  of,  244 
Scalping,  31 
Schooling,  26 


Schooling,  bitting  of,  210 
education  of  foal,  209 
halter  breaking,  209 
handling,  28 
handUng  of  foal,  208 
importance  of  education  of  foal, 
211 
Schwyter,  Dr.  H.,  13 
Score  card,  141 

chief  use  of,  142 
■    draft  score  card,  142 

heavy  harness  score  card,  144 
light  harness  score  card,  145 
saddle  horse  score  card,  147 
scoring,  142 
Scrub  or  mongrel,  184 
Sheaf  oats,  241 
Shetlands,  133 

chief  asset  of,  134 
color  of,  135 
discrimination  in,  135 
height  of,  135 
types  of,  133 
Shire,  96 

characteristics  of,  96 
crosses  of,  98 
Shoeing,  261 

hoof  dressings,  263 

hot  fitting,  262 

physiological  movements  of  the 

foot,  261 
proper  shoeing,  262 
removal  of  horn,  262 
Shorts,  237 
Show  type,  41 

form  of,  41 
quality  of,  42 
substance  of,  41 
temperament  of,  42 
way  of  going  of,  42 
Showing,  296 
in  hand,  296 
in  harness,  296 
rules,  297 
under  saddle,  296 
Shows,  296 


INDEX 


331 


Shows,  classes  of,  296 

fitting  for,  296 

horses  for,  296 

purposes  of,  296 
Side  bone,  149 
Side  or  bearing  rein,  275 

use  of,  277 
Silage,  242 
Snaffle,  273 

jointed,  273 

four-ring,  273 
Soiling  crops,  242 
Soundness,  141 

definition  of,  148 

durability  of  equine  machine,  149 

hereditary  unsoundness,  189 
rejection  for  unsoundness,  150 

significance  of,  148 
Soy  bean  hay,  240 
Spavin,  149 
Special  bits,  274 
Speed  type,  39 

form  of,  39 
quality  of,  40 
runner,  40 
temperament  of,  40 
trotter  and  pacer,  40 
way  of  going  of,  40 
Speedy  cutting,  31 
Springs,  290 

first  use  of,  291 
Stable  management,  259 

care  of  feet,  261 

care  of  legs,  260 

clipping,  263 

clothing,  265 

grooming,  259 

hoof  dressings,  263 

physiological  movements  of  the 
foot,  261 

shoeing,  261 

washing,  259 
Stables,  247 

arrangement  of,  247 

assignment  of  stalls,  258 

classes  of,  247 


Stables,  construction,  247 
design  of,  247 
dimensions  of,  248 
doors,  253 
interior  of,  256 
location  of,  247 
passageways,  253 
quarters  for  breeding  stock,  192 
vices,  266 

wagon  and  harness  rooms,  256 
windows,  253 
Stale  bread,  239 
Stallion,  191 

average  of  merit,  191 

care  and  management  of,  196 

exercise  of,  197 

feeding  of,  196 

grooming,  198 

legislation,  188 

French  system,  188 

ideals  in  laws,  189 

importance  of,  188 

objects  of,  189 

stallion  license  laws,  188 

suitable  laws,  190 
potency  of,  212 
regulation  of  service,  197 
selection  of,  194 
service  of,  196 
service  of  colts,  196 
sterility,  211 
testing  of,  194 
the  draft  stalHon,  197 
the  Thoroughbred  stallion,  19 
the  trotting  stallion,  197 
Stalls,  248 

bales,  249 
bedding,  250 
classes  of,  248 
dimensions  of,  248 
drainage  of,  250 
feed  boxes,  252 
floors  of,  249 
mangers,  252 
partitions  of,  248 
ties,  252 


332 


INDi^.X' 


Standardbred,  113 

American  Trotting  Registry  As- 
sociation, 188 

demand  for,  119 

eligibility  rules    for    registration 
of,  121 

foundation  blood  lines  of,  117 

notable  individuals,  114-120 

origin  of,  114 

pacing  standard,  121 

significance  of  name,  113 

speed  records  of,  122 

standard  by  performance,  188 

trotting  standard,  121 

versatility  of,  120 
Sterility,  211 

artificial  impregnation,  212 
potency  of,  212 

barrenness  in  mares,  212 

breeding  remedies,  213 

classification  of,  211 

cryptorchids,  212 

importance  of,  211 

in  stallion,  212 
potency  of,  212 
Straw,  246 

chaffing  of,  246 

cutting  of,  246 

moistening  of,  246 
Stride,  4 

features  of,  17 

phases  of,  5 
Stud,  192 

definition  of,  192 

equipment  of,  192 

stud  horse,  192 

the  breeding  stud,  192 
Substance,  45,  141 
Succulence,  241 
Suffolk,  98 

distinguishing  characters  of,  98 

distribution  of,  99 

origin  of,  98 

TaU  rubbing,  267 
Temperament,  45 


Temperament  and  disposition,  141 
Thoioughbred,  72 

"blood"  significance  of,  80 

description  of,  78 

early  racing,  77 

foundation  of,  77 

importance  of,  79 

introduction  into  America,  78 

origin  of,  72-76 

records  of,  81 

"relation  to  other  breeds,  79 

significance  of  term,  76 
Timothy,  239 
Transportation,  304 

car  fit,  308 

care  in  transit,  306 

express,  304 

express  car  for,  304 

freight,  304 

freight  tariffs,  305 

injury  during,  307 

preparation  of  car,  305 

preparation  of  horses  for,  307 

shipping  fever,  307 

stock  cars  for,  304 
Trappy,  31 
Trooper,  284 
Type,  23 

definition  of,  35 
Turk,  75 

Unsoundness,  189 

demonstration  of,  190 
rejection  for,  150 
unsound  stallions,  190 

Variation,  180 
Vehicle,  286 

American  road  wagon,  292 

axles,  288 

classification  of,  292 

construction  of,  291 

evolution  of,  286 

introduction  of,  290 

primitive,  286 

progress  of,  290 


INDEX 


333 


Vehicle,  springs,  290 

superior  woods  for,  291 

wheeled,  2o6 

wheels,  286 
Ventilation,  254 

calculation  of  requirements  of,  255 

cubic  air  space,  255 

fresh  air  requirements,  254 

impoifance  for  hon-es,  255 

King  system,  254 
Vices,  266 

Walk-trot-cantor  horse,  59 

saddle  bred,  60 

Thoroughbrv:d,  60 

trot  of,  59 
Washing,  259 
Water,  242 

allowance  of,  242 

necessity  for,  242 

public  watering  troighs,  243 

time  to  water,  243 
Way  of  going,  17, 141 

action,  17 

defects  and  peculiarities  in,  30 

factors  determining,  23 

pace,  17 
Weaving,  267 
Weight,  45 
Welsh,  135 

classification  of,  136 

colors  of,  136 

size  of,  136 

type  of,  135 

use  of,  137 
Wheat,  238 


Wheels,  286 

dishing  of,  289 

experiments  of  Mcrin,  287 

resilience  of,  287 

rubber.  287-291 

size  of,  223 

staggered  spokes,  290 

tire,  width  of,  223,  286 
Whip,  280 
Winding,  30 
Wind  sucking,  266 
Windows,  253 

as  inlets,  253 
Winging,  30 
Winkers,  279 
Word,  280 
Work,  222 

application  of  power,  226 

attachment  of  traces  to  hames, 
224 

collar,  fit  of,  225 

distribution  of  load,  223 

draft  of  load,  222 

duration  of  period  of,  226 

factors  determining,  222 

friction  of  box  on  axle,  223 

gravity,  222 

horse  division,  50 

fine  of  draft,  224 

rate  at  which  load  is  moved,  225 

road  bed,  222 

severity  of,  222 

size  of  wheel,  223 

width  of  tire,  223 

Yorkshire  Coach,  108 


nOPERTY  UMURY 

N.  C.  State  College 


Ca.LATE" 


ffi^^^l 

^K&l^mm 

mmm 

^^^^H 

fmSj^H 

^■fS^H 

■■ 

^^^^H 

fjj^^ 

t!ttr!uw7^            ^^^^^^^^^I 

^^Rfyrfmiu^l 

^^^^^1 

llllll,      ^^ 

■             i 

^^^^^^^^^1 

ip 


i 


